behavior recommended in the qUran and sUnna.
For example, quranic verses 24:30–31 call upon
men and women to “lower their gaze” away from
objects of sexual desire. Purdah practices in the
subcontinent are mostly concentrated among
members of the upper classes, thus frequently
indicating elevated social status. It is important
to note that practices of purdah vary significantly
according to the surrounding social and cultural
milieu, and they must be understood within their
specific historical and cultural contexts.
See also harem; veil.
Aysha A. HidayatullahFurther reading: Sitara Khan, A Glimpse through
Purdah: Asian Women—the Myth and the Reality (Staf-
fordshire, England: Trentham Books, 1999); Ruby
Lal, Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005);
Hanna Papanek, “Purdah: Separate Worlds and Sym-
bolic Shelter.” In Separate Worlds: Studies of Purdah
in South Asia, edited by Hanna Papanek and Gail
Minault, 3–53. (Columbia, Mo.: South Asia Books,
1982).purity and impurity See ablutions; circumci-
sion; dietary laws; halal.K 562 purity and impurity