ity, to non-Christian societies. Furthermore, and
perhaps most importantly, disputes about the
nature of secularism reflect different definitions
of religion and cannot be reduced to political,
economic, or social variables.
See also colonialism; reForm and reneWal
movements; theology; Westernization.
Caleb ElfenbeinFurther reading: Owen Chadwick, The Secularization
of the European Mind in the 19th Century (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1975); Louis Duprié, Pas-
sage to Modernity (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
Press, 1993); Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Lib-
eral Age 1798–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1962).
Seljuk dynasty
With roots in the steppes of Central Asia, the
Seljuk dynasty came to control much of the
Middle East and Central Asia from the 11th to
the 13th centuries. It largely relied on bands of
nomadic Turkmen warriors for its fighting force
and on Persian officials for its administration.
The early Seljuk clan was part of the ancient
Oghuz tribal group of steppe nomads in Central
Asia, out of which arose in the 10th century an
individual named Seljuk, who was probably the
first of his group to convert to Islam. His sons and
grandsons were successful raiders, who, through
skillful military operations, expanded their terri-
tory over much of iran by the mid-11th century.
In 1055 Seljuk’s grandson Toghril (d. 1063)
entered baghdad, overthrew the Buyid prince, and
was consequently proclaimed sUlta n by the Abas-
sid caliph. This recognition by the caliph of a sepa-
rate sultan created an important division between
spiritual authority and secular rule. In addition, the
military power of the Sunni Seljuks, by halting the
spread of shiism in the region, ensured the domi-
nance of sUnnism in the central Islamic lands.
Toghril was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan
(d. 1073), who named as his vizier the capable
administrator Nizam al-Mulk (d. 1091). Together
they were successful in consolidating Seljuk power
in Anatolia. However, as conflicts arose over suc-
cession, the empire was gradually weakened over
the next century. A branch of the Seljuk dynasty
based in Konya maintained power in Anatolia until
the beginning of the 14th century.
While the Seljuk dynasty held aUthority due
to military might, it was also a great supporter of
the arts, especially architectUre. Many mosqUes
and madrasas were built during their reign, which
was also marked by a distinctive style of tomb
architecture with cylindrical bases and conical
roofs that resemble a certain type of tent in Cen-
tral Asia. Notable scholars such as al-ghazali (d.
1111) and Umar Khayyam (d. 1123) flourished
during the Great Seljuk Empire, and the mystic
poet Jalal al-din rUmi (d. 1273) composed his
poetry in the Anatolian Seljuk capital of Konya.
The period of Seljuk rule also saw the formation
of the first major dervish orders.
See also abbasid caliphate; tUrkey.
Mark SoileauFurther reading: Claude Cahen, Pre-Ottoman Turkey
(London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968); Marshall G. S.
Hodgson, The Venture of Islam. Vol. 2: The Expansion of
Islam in the Middle Periods (Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press, 1974); Tamara Talbot Rice, The Seljuks in
Asia Minor (London: Thames and Hudson, 1961).Sephardic Jews
Sephardic Jews are the descendants of those Jews
who settled in Iberia (Spain) before it was under
Roman control and remained there until the expul-
sion of 1492, experiencing periods of economic
prosperity and cultural flourishing alternating
with those of persecution and forced conversions.
Sephardic Jews remember the Convivencia
(Spanish, “living together”) in al-Andalus as a
golden age, marked by poetry, philosophy, archi-
tectUre, and religious tolerance. This era ended
with the Almohad takeover of 1147, when many
Jews were forced to convert to Islam. During the
Christian reconquest, Jews faced increasing mas-
sacre and forced conversion from 1391 through
the Inquisitions of 1478–1834. By the time ofSephardic Jews 611 J