1994); Wael B. Hallaq, The Origins and Evolution of
Islamic Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2005); Christopher Melchert, The Formation of the
Sunni Schools of Law (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1997).
Shah, Idries (1924–1996) popular writer and
teacher who introduced Sufism to the West as a form
of self-realization
Born in Simla, india, to an Afghan father and a
Scottish mother, Shah came to England as a teen-
ager, studied at Oxford, and subsequently traveled
extensively. Following his father’s death in 1969,
Shah became known as the leader of the Sufis,
or Islamic mystics. Shah spent most of his adult
career in England enthusiastically introducing
sUFism to Western audiences, while teaching and
writing books that emphasized the psychological
dimensions of Sufism. Shah has authored over
30 titles, and most popular are his books on Sufi
wisdom stories and folktales. Shah’s purpose was
to dispel Western myths about Sufism while edu-
cating the public about Islamic mysticism. In his
texts, he does not claim to be part of any particular
Sufi order, nor does he promote a belief in islam.
In this respect he is a nontraditional Sufi. Shah’s
work is popular in the United states. It has been
translated into 12 languages and is used in vari-
ous academic disciplines, including psychology,
anthropology, and religious studies. Shah’s books,
including The Sufis (1964), Tales of Dervishes:
Teaching Stories of the Sufi Masters over the Past
Thousand Years (1967), and Learning How to Learn:
Psychology and Spirituality in the Sufi Way (1978),
earned him the admiration of numerous writers
and poets, and his home and center in England
routinely catered to upper-class gatherings. In
1970 the BBC produced and televised a documen-
tary, Dreamwalkers, focusing on Shah and Sufism.
Shah won numerous awards, including several
first prizes from UNESCO (United Nations Edu-
cational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization)
and was the director of studies for the Institute for
Cultural Research in London from 1966 until his
death. Shah’s followers, organized as the Society
for Sufi Studies, remain critical of traditional Sufi
practices that emphasize forms they believe are in
conflict with the modern world.
Mehnaz SahibzadaFurther reading: Franklin Lewis, Rumi Past and Present,
East and West: The Life, Teaching and Poetry of Jalal-al-
Din Rumi (Boston: Oneworld Publications, 2000); Idries
Shah, The Sufis (London: Octagon Press, 1977); Jane I.
Smith, Islam in America (New York: Columbia Univer-
sity Press, 1999); L. F. Rushbrook Williams, ed. Sufis
Studies: East and West (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1973).shahada (Arabic: testimony, witnessing)
The shahada is the first of the Five pillars of
islam. It is a formulaic “testimony” or “witness”
of one’s Islamic Faith—that “there is no god but
God and mUhammad is his messenger”—and
affirmation of membership in the community
(umma) of Muslims. Usually pronounced in Ara-
bic (ashhadu an la illah illa Allah wa ashhadu
Muhammad rasul Allah), this formula proclaims
belief in the unity of God and in the prophetic
status of Muhammad. It also expresses a rejection
of idolatry and implicitly accepts the missions
of other prophets (it does not say Muhammad
is the only messenger). Also known as the “two
shahadas” and the kalima, it is based on quranic
themes, but its wording occurs only in a fragmen-
tary form in the qUran (see Q 2:163, 255 and
48:29). Variations of the two parts of the formula
occur separately on late seventh-century Islamic
coins and building inscriptions, but the familiar
wording concerning both God and Muhammad
that is now used in Islamic ritual probably did
not become firmly established until the early or
mid-eighth century (by 750).
Muslims are obliged to pronounce the shahada
repeatedly throughout their lives. It is recited when
a baby is born, in the calls to prayer, and in daily
prayers. Anyone who wishes to convert to Islam
must pronounce it sincerely before witnesses. A
dying person should turn toward mecca and recite
it, but if he or she is unable to do so, others may
recite it instead. The Shia have modified the shahadaK 618 Shah, Idries