in the south, the conflict in Darfur, and a lack of
basic infrastructure, leaving much of the popula-
tion living in poverty.
See also arab; colonialism; copts and the
coptic chUrch; east aFrica; mUhammad ali
dynasty; reFUgees.
Kate O’HalloranFurther reading: John L. Esposito and John O. Voll,
eds., Makers of Contemporary Islam (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2001); Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Islamic
Law and Society in the Sudan (London: F. Cass, 1987);
John O. Voll, ed., Sudan: State and Society in Crisis
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
Sufi Movement
The Sufi Movement, a representative of the chishti
sUFi order, emerged following the death of India-
born in ayat khan (1892–1927), who had founded
the sUFi order international in 1910 in the United
states. Khan initiated a woman, Rabia Martin, and
designated her as his successor. His choice was,
however, rejected by Khan’s family and his grow-
ing European following. Khan died at a relatively
young age and had not written a will. Seizing upon
this circumstance (and the fact that his son/suc-
cessor was still a minor), the European members
rejected Martin’s leadership and organized the Sufi
Movement. They chose Mehboob Khan (1887–
1948), Inayat’s brother, as their new leader. He
would be succeeded in 1948 by a cousin, Moham-
mad Ali Khan (1881–1958), then by Musharaff
Khan (1895–1967), and then by Fazal Inayat Khan
(1942–90). Fazal resigned leadership in 1982.
After Fazal Khan’s resignation, a collective
leadership tried to assume control, but it soon
met with dissent so deep that it split the move-
ment. Hidayat Inayat Khan (b. 1917) soon
emerged as the leader of the largest part of
the Sufi Movement. He shared leadership with
Murshida Shahzadi. Hidayat, one of the sons of
Hazrat Inayat, finally became the sole leader of
the movement in 1993.
Hidayat Inayat Khan was only 10 years old
when his father passed away in 1927. From his
father he inherited a love of mUsic. He studied
at the Ecole Normale de Musique and eventually
became a professor in the Music School of Dieu-
lefit, Drome, France, and conducted an orchestra
in Haarlem, Holland. He wrote numerous compo-
sitions, including both secular music and a collec-
tion of Sufi hymns, and was a founding member of
the European Composers’ Union.
The Sufi Movement resembles the Sufi Order
International, headed by Hazrat Inayat’s elder son,
Vilayat Inayat Khan, and it is organized in five
divisions to focus on universal worship, commu-
nity, healing, symbology, and esoteric activity. The
movement has spread across eUrope to canada
and the United States. Members meet weekly for
dhikr (worship) and classes.
J. Gordon MeltonFurther reading: The Gathas (Katwijk, Netherlands:
Servire, 1982); Fazal Inayat Khan, Old Thinking: New
Thinking (New York: Harper and Row, 1979); Hidayat
Inayat Khan, Sufi Teachings (Victoria, Canada: Ecstasis
Editions, 1994).Sufi Order International
The Sufi Order International is a religious orga-
nization whose primary aim is to promote the
universalist Sufi teachings of in ayat khan (1882–
1927) and his son, Pir Vilayat Khan (b. 1916).
Inayat Khan was a renowned Indian musician
who became a disciple of Abu Hashim Madani,
a Sufi master from a branch of the famed chishti
sUFi order in india. Before his death, Madani
asked Khan to bring sUFism to the West. Khan
arrived in the United states in late 1910 and both
taught Sufism and performed music in eastern and
western coastal cities before traveling to eUrope
and Russia to organize formal Sufi centers. The
seeds of future division were sown at this time, as
different disciples (murids) were placed in charge
of national centers in Europe and North America.
The American leader, Rabia Martin, having been
rejected by the members of Khan’s family, led
the American followers into a relationship with
Indian teacher Meher Baba.Sufi Order International 637 J