by a democratic government; 2) the identity of
the occupier differs significantly from that of the
occupied (in terms of culture, religion, language,
etc.); 3) suicide attacks are conducted by orga-
nized groups, rather than by random, irrational
individuals; and 4) because terrorist groups
learn from each other; there is a tendency for it
to spread. Foreign occupation will only increase
the incidence of suicide bombings over time and
make terrorist recruitment efforts more success-
ful. Pape recommends that the U.S. cease to use
military coercion against foreign countries, let
these countries exercise more autonomy, help
strengthen them with non-military economic
assistance, and keep a military force trained and
ready to handle any major crises that cannot be
resolved by other means.
At the time of this writing (summer 2008), it
is not clear which course U.S. policy makers will
pursue in the years to come, although the most
vocal policymakers and media voices continue
to favor military occupation, as witnessed in Iraq
and Afghanistan. Governments in many Muslim-
majority countries are seeking either to eradicate
oppositional Islamic groups where they are able,
or apply a combination of pressures and incen-
tives to prevent them from engaging in armed
violence, including suicide attacks. Other govern-
ments appear to favor the use of suicide attacks
when they serve their national strategic interests.
See also hamas; hizbUllah; Jihad movements.
Further reading: Jonathan E. Brockopp, “The ‘Good
Death’ in Islamic Theology and Law,” in idem, ed.,
Islamic Ethics of Life: Abortion, War, and Euthanasia
(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2003),
177–193; David Cook, Martyrdom in Islam (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2007); David Cook and
Olivia Allison, Understanding and Addressing Suicide
Attacks: The Faith and Politics of Martyrdom Opera-
tions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007);
Bernard K. Freamon, “Martyrdom, Suicide, and the
Islamic Law of War: A Short Legal History,” in Fordham
International Law Journal 27 (2003), 299–369; Haim
Malka, “Must Innocents Die? The Islamic Debate over
Suicide Attacks,” in Middle East Quarterly 10, no. 2
(Spring 2003), on http://www.meforum.org/ article/530;
Robert A. Pape, Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of
Suicide Terrorism (New York: Random House, 2005);
Franz Rosenthal, “On Suicide in Islam,” in Journal of
the American Oriental Society, 66 (July–Sept. 1946):
239–259, reprinted in idem, Muslim Intellectual and
Social History: A Collection of Essays (Aldershot, Hamp-
shire, U.K.: Varorium, 1990).sultan
In Arabic the term sultan generally means “power”
or “aUthority,” but starting in the 10th century
c.e. increasingly it also came to be an official
title designating the person who holds power and
authority. Although the title could refer to a pro-
vincial governor or prince, it could also serve as
the title of the ruler of an entire region or empire.
This was the case when the Shii Buyids seized
control of baghdad in 945 c.e. The Buyids allowed
the abbasid caliphate to continue as the symbolic
and religious head of the Muslim community
while their own leader took over all real military
and political authority under the title of sultan.
Although this division of authority did not form a
part of the early Islamic ideals, both the caliph and
political theorists accommodated themselves to
the realities of the situation. They concluded that
because the Buyids upheld Islamic law (sharia),
the chaos and violence that would likely ensue in
an attempt to overthrow them was not worth the
risk. At the same time, however, they tried to put
limits on the devolution of power by insisting that
only the caliph could confer the title of sultan. The
Buyids and those who came after them accepted
this and eagerly sought this statement of investiture
from the caliph for the legitimacy that it bestowed.
In return the sultan promised to defend the lands of
Islam from external threats, while ensuring justice
internally. In this way Muslim theorists adopted
a more Persian-inspired model of government in
which religion and government are seen as brothers
that mutually support each other.
When the Seljuk Turks defeated the Buyids in
1055 the caliph did not regain any of his author-
ity under the new regime, but the defeat did bringsultan 643 J