as noticeably in Shiism. This has led to some prob-
lems facing contemporary Sunni Islam, especially
because the most vigorous intellectual leadership,
that of the Islamists, has not, in the main, come
from the ulama class but rather from those edu-
cated in the modern methods, especially the hard
sciences. In this respect, then, it could be argued
that Sunnism finds itself in a real crisis of identity
and direction quite similar to the period of crisis
that European Christianity endured after the Prot-
estant Reformation began in the 16th century.
Some tensions exist between Sunnis and Shiis,
especially in regions where sizeable populations
of both sects exist, such as pakistan, iraq, and
lebanon. But on the whole, these differences are
submerged in the larger contexts of agreement,
whether they be religious, nationalistic, or ethnic.
Where these differences are reemerging, such as
in iraq after the American invasion, the divisions
reflect at least in part the failure of nationalism to
provide an effective source of cohesion.
John IskanderFurther reading: Patricia Crone, God’s Rule (New York:
Columbia University Press, 2004); Qasim Zaman, Reli-
gion and Politics under the Early ’Abbasids: The Emer-
gence of the Proto-Sunni Elite (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1997);
Qasim Zaman, The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Cus-
todians of Change (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Press, 2002).
suq See bazaar.
sura See quran.
Syria (Official name: Syrian Arab Republic)
Syria is one of the most important countries in
the Middle East in terms of its size and its role
in Middle East regional politics. Its population is
rapidly changing as a result of a high birth rate
(2.24 percent in a 2007 estimate) and a dramatic
influx of reFUgees due to violent conflict along its
borders with iraq, lebanon, and israel. The offi-
cial population was about 19.8 million in 2008,
but this number does not account for the UNHCR
estimate of more than one million Iraqi war refu-
gees residing in Syria with little prospect of return
to their home country. In addition, Syria is home
to more than 400,000 Palestinian refugees who
came to Syria in four major waves of forced migra-
tion: in 1948, 1967, 1973, and after the expulsion
of the palestine liberation organization (PLO)
from Lebanon in 1982.
Syria’s current land area of 185,180 square
kilometers (about the size of North Dakota) is
home to some of the world’s oldest civilizations.
The Euphrates River flows across northeastern
Syria. The ancient city of Hamoukar was recently
discovered in northeast Syria near the shores
of the Euphrates. It may have been settled by
humans as early as 8,000 years ago. The ancient
kingdoms of Ebla (southwest of Aleppo) and Mari
(on the Euphrates) developed cuneiform writing,
a precursor to our modern alphabet. Ebla was so
prosperous that “no fewer than seventeen varieties
of wheat were raised” and “Ebla was in a condi-
tion to feed more than 18 million people” (Batatu,
p. 92). These early empires were succeeded by the
Hittites at Ugarit in the northern coastal region
(1600–1200 b.c.e.), the Persians (539–333 b.c.e.),
the Greeks (333–64 b.c.e.), and the Romans (64
b.c.e.–395 c.e.). In the 200s, Queen Zenobia con-
quered most of egypt and Asia Minor. She built
the sprawling city of Palmyra in the eastern Syrian
desert before being defeated by the Romans in 272
c.e. Today Palmyra is one of Syria’s most spectacu-
lar archaeological sites.
Syria is also a land of diverse religious tradi-
tions. The majority of the population is Sunni
Muslim (74 percent). Syria was conquered by
Muslim armies from the Arabian Peninsula in 634
c.e., two years after the death of mUhammad (ca.
570–632). The capital of the first Islamic empire
of the Umayyads (634–750) was damascUs. Other
religious sects within the Islamic tradition that are
prevalent in Syria include the alaWi, drUze, Shii,
Ismaili, and Yazidi (16 percent). From the 1200s
through the 19th century, Sufi Islam was the
dominant form of religious practice among Mus-
lims. Sufis were organized into religious orders,Syria 647 J