OCEANOGRAPHY 801
More conventional observational techniques are required
to monitor subsurface distributions of temperature, salinity, and
currents. A consequence of the intense ENSO event in 1982/83
was the recognition that atmospheric and oceanographic pro-
cesses in the tropical Pacific were important precursors of such
events. One result of this was the initiation of the ten year inter-
national Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere, TOGA, program
and the deployment over this period of an array of instrumented
buoys called the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean, TAO, array and
presently the TAO/TRITON array. The present array of 67
buoys are deployed along eleven longitudinal transects from
135 E to 95W with coverage from 8N to 8S. Measurements
include air temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure,
long and short wave radiation, wind velocity, together with sea
surface and subsurface temperatures to a depth of 500m. Buoy
data are transmitted in near real time via satellite.
An important feature of extensive ocean observation pro-
grams such as TOPEX POSEIDON and TAO/TRITON is the
widespread and timely dissemination of data products via
the Internet. The Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory
of the National Atmospheric and Oceanic Agency manages
the TAO array and is responsible for data quality control and
availability. TAO data may be obtained from the Internet
site http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/jsdisplay/. The Physical
Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center, PODAAC,
of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the California
Institute of Technology provides data management for a vari-
ety of satellite observations of the ocean and atmosphere.
These data may be accessed at the Internet site http://podaac.
jpl.nasa.gov/. The development of numerical models of the
ocean and of the atmosphere began in the 1950s. Increases in
computer power and in global observational programs have
led to a steady evolution of such models into useful predic-
tive tools. One significant recent development has been the
creation of fully coupled atmosphere and ocean climatologi-
cal models. One example of this model development is the
Community Climate System Model, CCSM, developed by
the National Center for Atmospheric Research. It includes
the atmosphere, the ocean, the land areas, and regions of sea-
ice. All are coupled by computing fluxes between them. This
model is an example of a recent trend in oceanography (and
other sciences) to make models readily available to the “com-
munity” of potential users. In the case of CCSM it is available
online from its web site together with user manuals and other
aids for its successful implementation. The CCSM has demon-
strated its predictive skill through comparison with observed
climatic variability. A particular example is its ability to hind-
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Stevens Institute of TechnologyRICHARD HIRES
Stevens Institute of TechnologyC015_001_r03.indd 801C015_001_r03.indd 801 11/18/2005 11:10:05 AM11/18/2005 11:10:05 AM