276 JOHAN POST AND ISA BAUD
The comparative strength or weakness of the public partner is also important from
another perspective. A major characteristic of partnerships is that each partner can
bargain on its own behalf and take decisions without having to consult with other
authorities (cf. Hordijk, 2001). An important hindrance in the Kenyan capital is that
the NCC is incapable of acting as a principal. Its chronic lack of financial means,
related to the weakness of local government in Kenya, together with its antagonistic
relationship with the central government disqualify the NCC in this respect. The
MCH, on the other hand, is sufficiently solvent and independent to be considered a
robust partner. Therefore, the level of uncertainty is comparatively low for those
wishing to engage with the MCH.
Similar to the public sector, private commercial and community actors also have to
qualify as a partner. One of the requirements of partnerships is that each of the partic-
ipants brings something to the arrangement that the others are either missing or could
only provide at prohibitive costs (complementarity) (Evans, 1996; Peters, 1998). The
first problem is that the potential may be there, but the authorities fail to recognize it.
Very often there is reluctance on the part of the authorities, for example, to deal with
large numbers of informal operators (such as waste pickers). This aversion partially
stems from expected transaction costs. More important, however, is that the elusive-
ness of these activities is at odds with the enforcement of rules and regulations
(including sanitary codes and health standards) and could make effective sanctions in
case of malpractice difficult to enforce. Official attitudes towards such undertakings
are still overwhelmingly hostile, especially when they relate to the most non-formal-
ised activities in the waste sector, which are socially stigmatised as dirty, unhealthy,
chaotic and illegal (Baud et al., 2001). Currently, there is a total lack of any form of
partnership between small private recycling enterprises, waste pickers, dealers and the
local authorities in the two cities studied. This relationship is characterized by extreme
avoidance and antagonism. This is a pity, because cooperation could lead to improve-
ments by increasing levels of resource recovery, as well as higher (and more
protected) levels of employment for waste pickers/itinerant buyers/dealers currently
working in informal forms of employment. The way to cut across this divide does not
emerge from the case studies, and there is little evidence from elsewhere (Baud et al.,
2001) to suggest that there are methods of developing partnerships. Nevertheless, in
view of environmental considerations, it remains important to look into this issue
further.
Within inorganic waste recycling commodity chains, (commercial) partnerships are
well-established in both cities, although those in India tend to be of a longer duration.
They build up social capital by contributing to the continuity and regularity of the
economic activities carried out. They also provide important informal forms of social
security, through the loans given by dealers to pickers and itinerant buyers Although
the employment created within these commodity chains is not protected by labour
legislation in either city, efforts can be made to increase safety and health aspects,