might have a relationship with the Islamic con-
ception of khalifar, which is understood as human
responsibility for stewardship over everything in
creation. In a pre-Islamic framework, such a
notion of stewardship in relation to animistic con-
ceptions of nature could have been interpreted in
terms of a sense of coexistence with other natural
forms and the spirits associated with them so as to
preserve the sustainability of natural reserves as
well as their sacred character where applicable. A
central aspect of informal Beja beliefs is the belief
in jinns, which are spirits who are believed to
dwell in both natural and manmade spaces.
Pre-Islamic beliefs are associated with aspects
of Beja identity that are understood as African
and different from the Arab associations of Islam.
These contrasting identifications are particularly
relevant in the struggle of the Beja to preserve
their ethnic identity in the face of socioeconomic
pressures and to consolidate a distinctive political
base in the multiethnic context of the Sudan.
Fiercely independent, the Beja have been con-
sidered a proud people in the sense that they
resist external influences. They resisted domina-
tion by the Egyptian and Ethiopian kings
throughout their history. Even today there are
many who have resisted service in the Sudanese
army. Yet their long history has meant some
involvement with outsiders such as Arabs from
northern Arabia. This has impacted mainly the
religious side of the culture, but the Beja still
insist on their own traditions alongside Islam. It
is believed by some authorities that the Beni-
Amer Beja, whose name and identity were gained
from the Jaalyyin Muslims of Arabia, have
retained more of their customs than other clan
groups because they have had the least intermar-
riage. There is no way to verify this claim; how-
ever, it should be noted that the Beni-Amer have
been the most resistant to foreign incursions.
Historically the Beja sided with the Mahdi in
fighting against the British colonialists. This was one
of the few times that a “modern” European army
was defeated in Africa. Twice the Mahdi’s army
with his Hadendowa Beja allies defeated the British
in the 19th century. In turn, they were asked to fight
with the British against the Italians in World War II.
In defending their own territory, they have been
active soldiers in keeping outsiders at bay.
The Beja have retained a part of their ancient
matrilineal practice, although the culture is now
mainly patrilineal, following the Christian and
Islamic models. The most important person in the
family group is the mother’s brother. The Beja pre-
fer to marry first cousins. They also believe that
rites of passage around circumcision, engagement,
marriage, and death are important.Oluwatoyin Vincent AdepojuFurther Readings
Abd Al-Rahim, M. (1970). Arabism, Africanism, and
Self-Identification in the Sudan.Journal of Modern
African Studies, 8 (2), 233–249.
Berman, M. (2000).Wandering God:A Study in Nomadic
Spirituality. New York: State University of New York.
Jacobsen, F. (1998).Theories of Sickness and Misfortune
Among the Hadendowa Beja of the Sudan. London:
Kegan Paul.
Pantuliano, S. (2000).Changing Livelihoods:Urban
Adaptation of the Beja Pastoralists of Halaib Province
(Ne Sudan)and Ngo Planning Approaches.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Leeds.
Prussin, L. (1995).African Nomadic Architecture:Space,
Place and Gender. Washington, DC: Smithsonian.BEMBA
The Bemba are a branch of the ancient Luba
Empire who acknowledged the authority of the
chief, Chitimukulu. They reside in the Northern
Province of Zambia and its neighboring countries
with a combined population of approximately
1,850,000. The language of the Bemba isIciBemba,
a part of the Bantu language family.
Bemba religious beliefs and practices espouse a
multidimensionality of the cosmos where Lesa,
God, the Supreme Being, is the genesis and suste-
nance of all celestial and terrestrial beings.
Traditional Bemba proverbs describe beliefs regard-
ing the Supreme Being. For example, God is a
divine being with dual aspects as expressed by the
phrase,Mayo na tata, my mother and my father;
and “Ubwile ubwapika Lesa tabupikululwa,” man
cannot comprehend the mysteries of God. He is all118 Bemba