Bourriau, J. D. (1988).Pharaohs and Mortals.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kemp, B. (1989).Ancient Egypt:Anatomy of a
Civilization. London: Routledge.
BETE
The Bete people live in the Southwest of the coun-
try of Côte d’Ivoire. Their neighbors are the Akan
ethnic groups to the east and the Guro people to
the north. Although their population is less than
1 million, the Bete have a powerful history of
artistic production. Their art is found throughout
the world as representatives of the best abstract
work from West Africa. They are an agricultural
people, growing cocoa and coffee, whose exis-
tence is primarily linked to their patrilinear orga-
nizational structure. They are not a people with
kings, but rather have villages that are termed
headless, but that are under the authority of the
ancestors’ power as interpreted by intense spiri-
tual individuals who are the mediators for the
ancestors. It is assumed that the people have
maintained their art forms, even exploring other
artistic concepts, particularly because they are
spiritual. Their religion is their adherence to the
ancestors. Their art, therefore, represents the
deepest philosophical concepts of the people.
Like all African people, the Bete have a close
relationship with their ancestors; this allows
them to have harmony, balance, and order in
their society. Although they are in a region of
Africa that has accepted outside religions, the
Bete maintain an effective connection to their
ancestors, who are responsible for all the activi-
ties of the ethnic group. They acknowledge the
work of the Almighty Creator, Lago, but they
neither pray to Lago nor worship Lago. As in
almost all African cultures, the relationship of
the human population to the Creator is distant.
The work of Lago having been done before the
origin of the human race, the people rely on
ancestors and other spirits for everyday support.
All power to protect, bring happiness, support
fertility, and bring harmony among people is
directly related to the spirits with special powers
and energies, such as those that inhabit trees,
rivers, and rocks.
The Bete follow their customs and taboos and
make sacrifices of animals to keep order and bal-
ance. Every ritual is devoted to protecting the lin-
eage of the ancestors. One of the reasons they have
such extensive use of masks is because of the
numerous festivals and ceremonies in honor of the
ancestors. Among these masks are the gre or
nyabwa with the exaggerated, distorted features
around the mouth, forehead, and nose of the fig-
ure. These are masks that presided when there
was conflict in the society. When the people had
achieved peace, they were able to retire the masks.
All masks are endowed with force, and among the
Bete this force is often used by the people to pre-
pare young men for war and to instill terror in the
hearts of enemies. No mask exists without a dance.
It is important to note that the Bete have
created a significant body of artistic work that
elevates the African tradition in the same manner
as the classical productions of ancient Egypt and
Nubia. Their history of art is filled with numerous
examples of works that utilize the principles of
creativity, harmony, fantasy, and myth.Molefi Kete AsanteSee alsoAncestors; GodFurther Readings
Asante, M. K., & Nwadiora, E. (2007).Spear Masters:
Introduction to African Religion. Lanham, MD:
Universities Press of America.
Opoku, K. A. (1978).West African Traditional Religion.
London: FEP International.
Parrinder, G. (1967).African Mythology. London: Hamlyn.BIRDS
Birds are held in high regard in African religion
because of their ability to cross the barriers among
humans, spirits, space, and time. As with many
African religious systems, this belief is based on
observable phenomena. Birds thrive on land, in
water, and in the sky. The chicken, or bird, may be
the most sacrificed animal in African religious prac-
tices. Practically speaking, this is due to chickens
being domesticated, abundant, and easy to acquire.Birds 123