reflected major omissions, grammatical inferiority,
and disorganization. Those credited with compil-
ing this version ofThe Book of the Deadwere not
well versed with the documents, and it is evident in
the final craftsmanship.
The third version is closely related to the previ-
ous, Theban. It was written on papyrus in hieratic
characters as well as in hieroglyphics, with lack of
structure or logical sequence. It was in flux during
the 20th dynasty. The final version, the Saite, circu-
lated during the 27th dynasty through the Ptolemaic
Period. Its chapters were arranged in definite order,
written in hieroglyphics and hieratic, with consider-
ation of alterations of important information.
The Book of the Deadwas also recognized as the
pyramid texts that also share similar features and
purposes. The pyramid texts were to accompany the
King and address matters concerning his protection
and afterlife. They totaled some 80 spells, but no
single pyramid contained all the spells. This ancient
religious composition was authorized by the priests
of the College of Annu as an official version ofThe
Book of the Deadin the 1st dynasty. From these
texts, edited and revised, derived what is known as
the Coffin texts. Coffin texts were buried in rock-
cut tombs and not in pyramids; of those that pos-
sessed such inscriptions, the expectation was to
master the spells to ensure passage into the afterlife.
Through time and revisions, the ritualistic aspects of
The Book of the Deadwere neglected until only
selected chapters remained.
Elizabeth AndradeSee alsoBurial of the Dead; Death; Rites of Passage; Rituals
Further Readings
Budge, W. E. A. (1967).Egyptian Book of the Dead:The
Papyrus Ani.New York: Dover.
David, R. (2002).Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt.
New York: Penguin.
Karenga, M. (2006).Maat:The Moral Idea in Ancient
Egypt. Los Angeles: University of Sankore Press.
BOUKMAN
Dutty Boukman (Zamba Boukman) was the
Vodou priest (Houngan) commonly recognized as
the person who started the Haitian Revolution.
Although Boukman was not the first to lead a
rebellion against slavery in Saint-Domingue,
because he was preceded by others such as
Padrejean in 1676 and François Makandal in
1757, he is nonetheless believed to have delivered
the spark that ignited the Haitian Revolution.
Boukman had come to Saint-Domingue by way
of Jamaica, and he became a maroon in the forest
of Morne Rouge in the northern part of the island.
Prior to his marronage, he had been a commandeur
and later a coachman on the Clément plantation,
which was among the first to go up in flames once
the revolution began. It is said that his experience
as a commandeur provided him with certain orga-
nizational and leadership qualities and that his post
as a coachman enabled him to follow the ongoing
political developments in the colony and to develop
communication links and establish contacts among
the enslaved Africans of different plantations.
Boukman was a man of imposing physical stature
with unflinching courage. He exerted extraordinary
influence and command over his followers, who
knew him as “Zamba” Boukman.
On the rainy night of August 14, 1791 (some
texts, however, have placed the date as August 22,
1791), in the northern part of Saint-Domingue,
Boukman led a Vodou ceremony in a thickly
wooded area known as Bois-Caïman (literally
“Alligator Woods”). He was accompanied by a
Vodou priestess (Mambo) named Cécile Fatiman.
Fatiman is believed to have invoked the Vodou deity
(Loa) Ezili Dantò while Boukman rose to deliver an
impassionate call to arms that ended each refrain
with the words: “Koute laliberté nann ke nou tout”
(“Listen to the voice of liberty which speaks in the
hearts of all of us”). In his oration, Boukman called
on the enslaved Africans to rely on the forces of the
Supreme Being found in nearly all African religious
traditions, as opposed to the “false” Christian God
of the whites, to rebel against slavery. This is
Boukman’s prayer translated in English:The god who created the sun which gives us
light, who rouses the waves and rules the storm,
though hidden in the clouds, he watches us. He
sees all that the white man does. The god of the
white man inspires him with crime, but our god
calls upon us to do good works. Our god who is
good to us orders us to revenge our wrongs. He
will direct our arms and aid us. Throw away the138 Boukman