go follow the herd of cattle. Others learn to
grind corn or clean out the cattle stalls.
Although children have these duties, they must
still go through thekususarite. This is an elaborate
ritual that has one principal goal: to intercede in the
lives of unruly children. Thus, a child of 12 years old
may be brought before an elder woman who teaches
the child about good behavior. Other children who
are already initiated will be asked to give the new
initiate advice about morality. The previously initi-
ated children sing songs and chant proverbs that are
meant to influence the new initiate. Thus, both the
elders and the youths are brought in to assist with
the ritual ofkisusa. Afterward there is both a sacri-
ficial and a purification ceremony, one followed by
the other after a month.
In previous generations, the Chagga also held sep-
arate rituals for boys and girls before they were
married. The young males had to experience and
participate in theNgasiceremony. They would be
sent out into the forest where they would perform
certain ordeals for several days, hunting, fishing, and
demonstrating their ability to live in the woods with-
out family and community. Young women had to go
through theShijaceremony, which included instruc-
tion in rituals as well as learning about sexuality, pro-
creation, and childrearing. However, the Germans
who ruled Tanzania from 1885 to 1946 abolished all
Chagga initiation rites. It might be said that abolition
of these rituals created a crisis in identity and culture
that continues to plague the society today.
Clearly, everything did not disappear with the
presence of the colonial administrators; the
Chagga have retained the greeting rituals that
show the elaborate forms of previous generations.
How you greet the elders is important to the soci-
ety. One does not greet the elders the same way
that one greets peers. Furthermore, the greeting
may vary depending on the time of the day.
Because the older the elder is, the closer he or she
is to the ancestors, it behooves the person to ensure
that he or she practices the proper greetings.
Propriety is also shown when wives and hus-
bands meet; they must always face each other less
one believes that the other is offering a curse.
Indeed, even when a daughter-in-law meets her
father-in-law, she must show him respect by bow-
ing before him. Likewise, the father-in-law must
always treat the daughter-in-law with respect and
must show no hostility toward her.
As in a great many African societies, public
displays of affection, such as hugging and kissing
in public, are considered inappropriate. Thus,
although Chagga have changed some of their
customs, they remain grounded in the principal
concepts of their culture.Molefi Kete AsanteFurther Readings
Balandier, G., & Maquet, J. (1974).Dictionary of Black
African Civilization. New York: Amiel.
Parrinder, G. (1954).African Traditional Religion.
London: Hutchinson University Library.CHAMINUKA
Chaminuka is an ancestor of the Shona people,
who include VaZezuru, VaKaranga, VaManyika,
VaNdau, VaKorekore, BaNambiya, BaVenda,
and BaKalanga. These are dialect groups of the
Shona as a family. Chaminuka’s stature as a reli-
gious figure is best understood in relation to his
place in the Shona lineage as a family and the role
that he played as a founder of Zimbabwe. The
original Chaminuka belongs to the lineage of
Tovera, the earliest known ancestor of the Shona
according to their history. Tovera’s son, Mambiri,
is the father of Murenga Sororenzou, the founder-
architect of Zimbabwe. Murenga’s children
include Chaminuka, Nehanda, and Mushavatu.
Mushavatu’s descendants are the preferred medi-
ums of Chaminuka.
The original home of the Shona before they came
to Zimbabwe was Tanganyika (Tanzania), which
means Origin of the World in Shona. The Shona
migrated from Tanganyika to southern Africa as a
family. They maintained their family structure as a
model for their political and religious systems. That
is why it has proved difficult to penetrate or divide
them to set one group against the other.
God is the head of the Shona family and their
political and religious systems. The ancestors are
the guardian spirits, followed by the Mutapa as the
ruler of the nation. The first Shona settlement in
southern Africa was at Mapungubwe near the con-
fluence of the Limpopo and Shashi Rivers. A townChaminuka 157