major purpose of the religious rituals that cele-
brate mothers is to satisfy mothers as primary
sources of knowledge and spiritual powers.
Women have the ability to create and end life, and
the ceremony seeks to show respect for this power.
Normally, the mothers respond enthusiastically
and appropriately by dancing, singing, screaming,
and clapping to the masked performance.
It is the role of the chiefs, as the highest reli-
gious representatives of God on Earth and medi-
ators between the natural and supernatural
realms, to perform propitiatory ceremonies and
to commemorate the achievement of the founders
of the Chokwe lineage. This means that the chiefs
ensure that the past fuses with the present to
work harmoniously toward an auspicious future
for all Chokwe people. Royal ancestors’ figures
among the Chokwe also reflect the king’s respon-
sibility to maintain a sense of balance with the
spiritual world to secure the well-being of their
community.
In the cosmology of Chokwe religion, remem-
bering and honoring the ancestors ensures fertility,
success, and continuity for all in the community.
Neglecting deceased relatives results in chaos, con-
fusion, calamity, catastrophe, and war for both
individuals and their related community.
At the beginning of the summer season, the
elders among the women and the children orga-
nize a spiritual giving celebration to the river
Cuango. They come with food, the pouring of
libations of beer and wine, and the evocation of
songs and dances to the ancestors as a way to
please them for the goodness, protection, and
guidance they received throughout the year.
During the spiritual celebration to the ancestors,
members are allowed to cry, dance, throw food in
the river, and ask for more rain for the fertilization
and improvement of the harvest.
When things go well and life is pleasant, the
Chokwe people give praise and thanks to the
ancestors. Chokwe ancestral spirits play a crucial
role of providing for their living kin if they are
properly addressed and honored by the living
ones; this is the source of happiness and peace
among the people.
Chikukuango Cuxima-zwaSeealsoAncestors; Bantu Philosophy
Further Readings
Dillon-Malone, C. M. (1978).The Korsten
Basketmakers,A Study of the Masowe Apostles an
Indigenous African Religious Movement. Harare: The
Institute for African Studies, University of Zambia.
Fontinha, M. (1983).Desenhos na Areia Dos Chokwe
Do Nordeste De Angola.Lisboa, Portugal: Instituto
De Investigacao Cientifica Tropical.
Hackett, R. I. J. (1996).Art and Religion in Africa.
London: Cassell Press.
Hauenstein, A. (1988).Examen De Motifs Decoratifs
Chez Les Ovimbundu Et Tchokwe D’Angola.
Coimbra, Portugal: Instituto De Antropologia,
Universidade De Coimbra.CIRCUMCISION
Various forms of surgical and ritual operations
known as circumcision are performed on human
sex organs throughout the world. In Africa, it is
an old practice. Erroneously believed by many
people to be of Israelite or Islamic origin, circum-
cision actually predates the births of Jesus Christ
and Mohammed. It is a much more ancient prac-
tice than Judaism and Islam, one that came to
the Israelites from the Kemetians, the ancient
Egyptians. This entry looks at that history and the
practice in Africa.Historical Background
The oldest documentary evidence for male cir-
cumcision comes from ancient Egypt. Proof of cir-
cumcision rite abounds in the ancient Egyptian
temple reliefs and paintings; tomb artwork from
the 6th dynasty (2345–2181 BC) shows men with
circumcised penises. In addition, one relief from
this period shows the rite being performed on a
standing adult male. Ancient Egyptians sacrificed
the foreskin to Min, the fertility and sexuality
god, by burning it. Min was shown as a human
male with an erect penis.
It must be noted, however, that although cir-
cumcision is of ancient Egyptian origin and was
prevalent in this powerful ancient African king-
dom, it was not systematically performed on all
men, nor was it required of all. As a matter of
fact, the examination of the ancient EgyptianCircumcision 167