Hieroglyph for “penis” reveals either a circum-
cised or an erect organ. Likewise, the examination
of ancient Egyptian mummies of the pharaohs has
shown some males who were circumcised and oth-
ers with foreskins. The tool used to perform cir-
cumcision was the flint, a piece of hard gray stone
that sparks or makes small flashes of flame when
struck with steel.
In Ancient Israel, circumcision was ritually per-
formed during a special ceremony (berith or briss)
on the eighth day after birth, and it involved male
children of natives, servants, and aliens. It was ini-
tially carried out by the father. The tool the Jewish
people used to perform circumcision was a knife,
but later specialists known asmohels(circumcis-
ers) were employed to carry out the berith.
In the Islamic tradition,khitan(male circumci-
sion), also called euphemisticallytahara(purifica-
tion), was to be performed on a boy only when
he reaches the age of 13. Arabic Bedouin ethnic
groups would circumcise males the day before
they were to marry. It was a test of endurance,
valor, and honor, in that during this operation the
groom was to sing, thus proving to the surround-
ing crowd that he is stronger than pain. However,
it is becoming acceptable for Muslim boys to be
circumcised years earlier, even as early as the sev-
enth day after birth. MuslimSunnetci(trained and
experienced circumcisers) also use knives or razor
blades to perform the operation.
Practice in AfricaIn African countries, the age at which circumcision
is carried out varies considerably among ethnic
groups and families and is dependent on religious
affiliations and, in some cases, on personal prefer-
ence. It can be performed at any time of human
development, as early as at birth or as late as at
adult age. The tools utilized to perform the rite vary
as well and include knives, pairs of scissors, razor
blades, and other sharp-edged tools. Although
today circumcision is performed for the most part
by physicians or RNs, it is embedded in a wide
range of cultural contexts and is quite different in
mode, rationale, scope, significance, and effects.
Indeed, depending on whether the ritualistic sur-
gical operation is performed on a male or a female
genital, the word circumcision takes different
meanings and connotations. Until recently, the term
circumcision, invariably called in medical jargon
Acucullophallia, Peritomy, or Posthetomy, was
used to refer exclusively to the surgical operation
performed on male genitalia (male circumcision).
This original meaning is still carried in several
African languages. The wordcircumcisionis called
Adà gbigbó(Adà= penis,gbigbó= cutting) in the
Fongbe language of Benin Republic, Okó didà
(Okó= penis,didà= cutting) in the Yoruba lan-
guage of Nigeria, andEvo sosso(Evó= penis,sóssó
= cutting) in the Mina language of Togo Republic.FemaleCircumcision
Conversely, the termexcisionfor a long time
was used to name exclusively homologous surgi-
cal operations performed on women (female cir-
cumcision, orkhafdin Arabic). In fact, the French
word for a woman who performs any form of
female circumcision on her peers is exciseuse
(female circumciser). However, what is known as
female circumcision nowadays has taken many
dimensions in shape and techniques to the point
that the wordexcisionis used to name only one
of the different types of female circumcision.
Following the World Health Organization (WHO)
classification, female circumcision is referred to as
female sexual mutilation (FSM), female genital
mutilation (FGM), or female genital cutting
(FGC). There are four types.
Clitoridectomy, also called Type 1 FGC, is
defined as the removal of the clitoral hood with or
without removal of the clitoris. The clitoral hood
corresponds to the foreskin of the penis, which is
removed during circumcision. Excision, also
known as Type 2 FGC, is the removal of the cli-
toris together with part or all of the labia minora.
Infibulation, or Type 3 FGC, is defined as the
removal of part or all of the external genitalia (cli-
toris, labia minora, and labia majora) and stitch-
ing and/or narrowing of the vaginal opening,
leaving a small hole for urine and menstrual flow.
Unclassified Type of FGM or Type 4 FGC encom-
passes all other operations performed on the female
genitalia, including- pricking, piercing, stretching, or incising of the
clitoris and/or labia; - cauterization by burning the clitoris and
surrounding tissues; and
168 Circumcision