- incision to the vaginal wall; the scraping or
cutting of the vagina and surrounding tissues;
and the introduction of corrosive substances or
herbs into the vagina.
Rationales
There are several theories accounting for the
nature and rationale of the circumcision rite. One
of the most common is that it is an initiatory rite.
Circumcision was performed before marriage or
at puberty, a rite of passage for teenage boys. In
other words, the ritual was regarded as a neces-
sary preliminary to marriage. Among many
African ethnic groups, especially the Masai of
Kenya, there are specific periods during which the
circumcision rite is performed. Boys must prove
themselves ready by performing certain manly
tasks, including attending to cattle before they can
be circumcised. When the boys feel they are ready,
they approach junior elders and ask them to open
a new circumcision period.
Another explanation is physical hygiene. It is
believed that circumcision is a necessary health
procedure, which prevents the attraction or trans-
mission of diseases. On a medical plane, a number
of diseases, such as penile carcinoma, posthitis,
phimosis, and balanitis, are said to afflict only
uncircumcised males. Moreover, the risk of getting
a urinary tract infection is believed to be far
greater among the uncircumcised males. It has
also been reported that 9 out of 10 uncircumcised
men have difficulty or experience pain in getting
the foreskin to pull backward upon erection.
Of course, there is a controversy over the med-
ical validity of circumcision to the point that, in
developed countries such as the United States,
some men who were previously circumcised blame
their parents for making them go through the pro-
cedure. Consequently, these men seek the restora-
tion of their foreskins by undergoing medical
procedures known as foreskin restoration and
penis shaping.
In several cultures, circumcision is a rite of
entry into the community of faith. Among the
Israelites, circumcision became the sign of the
Covenant People. Whoever was uncircumcised
was looked down upon and could not partake of
the hopes of the nation, nor could join in the wor-
ship of Yahweh.
It can also be an ethnic mark of distinction.
Among many African ethnic groups, circumcision
is regarded highly as a mark of distinction and a
symbol of valor and/or manhood. For the Masai
of Kenya, circumcision determines the role a boy
will play throughout his life, as a leader or a fol-
lower. A boy who cries out during the procedure
is branded a coward and shunned for a long time
and his mother is disgraced, whereas a boy who is
brave and who has led an exemplary life becomes
the leader of his age group. It takes months of
work to prepare for circumcision ceremonies
among the Masai, so the exact date of such an
event is rarely known until the last minute.
Both male circumcision and female circumci-
sion have cultural and religious significance in
African societies. For example, if the request for a
new circumcision period is approved, the Masai
boys begin a series of rituals, including theAlamal
Lenkapaata, preparation for circumcision or the
last step before the formal initiation. Before Masai
boys are circumcised, they must have aliabon, a
leader with the power to predict the future, guide
them in their decisions. The boys decorate them-
selves with chalky paint and spend the night out in
the open. The elders sing, celebrate, and dance
throughout the night to honor the boys. It is
worthwhile to note that, once a circumcision
period ends, it may not be opened again for many
years. The circumcision rite is taken seriously in
African culture and religion.Controversies
Of the two ceremonial genital surgeries, female
circumcision is inarguably the more controversial,
the more debated and written about, and the more
publicized. Articles, books, disquisitions, docu-
mentaries, and films are plentiful on the topic.
Although some are in favor of the practice on the
argument that it is purifying, others suggest a
revisitation of the rite to improve on the methods
used in performing it. Other literatures, probably
the vast majority and mostly written by outsiders
to the rite, still oppose female circumcision alto-
gether and call for the stoppage of the practice
they deem the most horrendous and barbaric tor-
ture and injustice done onto women.
The documentary filmWarrior Marks:Female
Genital Mutilation and the Sexual Blinding ofCircumcision 169