The conceptagbara(spiritual power) is evident
in Yoruba religious thought. Words ofagbaraare
legitimated byase(charm of command, vital force)
from the Supreme Being. The cosmos is populated
with malevolent spiritual forces and other sources
of mysterious powers such as medicine, witchcraft,
magic, and sorcery. Apart from the spiritual enti-
ties, chiefs, kings, priests, diviners, healers, witches,
and sorcerers are believed to possess power of one
kind or another, and they play special roles within
the religious praxis. In many cases, political, social,
and religious functions overlap.
The pursuit of health, fertility, and a balance
between humans and nature constitute some of the
basic concerns of African religion. Ritual and sacri-
fice structures draw on a philosophy of relation-
ships. Rites of passage are a common feature of
religious life. An individual’s passage through life is
monitored, marked, and celebrated from prebirth,
parturition, childhood, transition to adulthood,
adulthood, marriage, old age, death, and the living
dead. Divination is an important activity, although
the mode varies from place to another. People divine
in their quest to know the behest of the supernatural
beings and to inquire about their destiny.Ifais the
most widespread means of divination among the
Yoruba. Theizangoma/babalawo/nganga (diviner-
healer) is a pivotal force for order and rapproche-
ment between man and the spirit world. The role
of diviner/healer is held by either men or women
depending on the local context. They are
approached with much awe and respect.
Sacral kingship represents one important fea-
ture of political organization in most societies.
The myth narrative establishes the Yoruba king-
ship system as a sacred kinship line that emanates
from the primordial kingship ofOduduwa. The
sacrosanct nature of theOba(King) is rooted in
religious belief. The Oba is regarded as Ekeji
Orisa(the deputy of the divinities), set apart from
his people by the spiritual powers with which he
was endowed at his installation.
Women’s RoleThe role and status of women in indigenous reli-
gions and societies are normally defined by what
is deemed to be wholesome to the welfare of the
entire community. Although Zulu society is patri-
lineal, women have significant areas for religious
action. The ritual role of women is further exem-
plified in the relationship between women and the
Princess of the Sky. She is associated with virgin-
ity and fertility of all creatures, and she is capable
of instituting rules of behavior and ritual action.
The location of the divinity is a specific hill or
mountain. In most Yoruba communities, women
are in charge of some shrines where they carry out
cultic functions.Iya Nla(the Great Mother) is at
the apex of a hierarchy of femaleorisa, who are
collectively known asawon Iya(the Mothers).
Some of these cosmological aspects are not
peculiar to Africa. The encounter with Islam and
Christian cosmologies has at times transformed
indigenous religious thought and practice, but did
not supplant it. African religion preserved much of
its beliefs and ritual practices while also adjusting
to the new sociocultural milieu. In fact, in many
cases, Islam and Christianity became domesticated
on the African soil. New religious initiatives attest
to the continuity of African worldviews and ritual
cosmos in the midst of change.Afe AdogameSeealsoIfa; Maat; OrishaFurther Readings
Abimbola, W. (1976).Ifa:An Exposition of Ifa Literary
Corpus. Ibadan, Nigeria: Oxford University Press.
Arens, W. (1989).Creativity of Power:Cosmology and
Action in African Societies.Washington, DC:
Smithsonian.
Berglund, A. (1976).Zulu Thought-Patterns and
Symbolism. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana
University Press.
Lawson, E. T. (1984).Religions of Africa:Traditions in
Transformation. San Francisco: Harper and Row.
Olupona, J. K. (Ed.). (2000).African Spirituality:Forms,
Meanings and Expressions. New York: The
Crossroad.COWRIESHELLS
Seashells, in general, belong to the vast family of
mollusks, which are a myriad mix of animals.
They have been used by humans as a food supply,
naturally decorated and collected items from the180 Cowrie Shells