on the willingness to participate, rather than
descent lineage. Young people are not normally
accepted into the age group organization until
they have reached puberty; then they may join
any of the age group sets that apply to their ages.
Where age group sets exist, by the time a person
is 15 years old, he or she has usually been
accepted into an age group set.
There are a number of theories about age group
organizations. Some believe that they were devel-
oped to deal with military situations. In fact,
the Zulu military organization under Chaka was
based on age group sets. Most East African soci-
eties that have age group sets also use them as
military group and military organization. Among
the Maasai and Nandi, the age group sets pro-
vided ready sources of military troops.
Of course, there are some people who do not
tie their age group sets to military or legal systems;
they are tied to social constructions. Another the-
ory says that age groups reflect the way humans
move into the ancestral realm, that is, with their
age group cohorts. Because all members of an age
group are close in age, this is a logical conclusion
because the group creates a common approach to
society, life, and ancestors. The age group set may
provide the basis for community loyalty. The
participation in the age group is at the core of
the community’s sense of purpose. Those who are
in an age set work within a structure where age
group loyalty trumps all others.
Normally if the particularly ethnic group prac-
tices circumcision, all the boys who are circum-
cised at the same time form an age set. Some
groups practice female circumcision also, and girls
who are circumcised at the same time are mem-
bers of the same set.
Usually age set creation is accompanied by rit-
ual ceremonies of initiation. Only those people
who have been initiated can participate in certain
age set activities. If someone violates the rules of
the age set, then that person might be cursed or
expelled from the age group.
The Tiriki age sets, for example, are given
names according to age and responsibilities. Thus,
you have elders who are deceased or senile
(Kabalach), ritual elders (Golongolo), judicial
elders (Jiminigayi), elder warriors (Nyonje), war-
riors (Mayina), initiated (Juma), uninitiated
(Juma), and small boys (Sawe). One remains with
an age group until all members are deceased; then
the next group becomes the oldest and wisest.Molefi Kete AsanteSee alsoRites of PassageFurther Readings
Ehret, C. (1971).Southern Nilotic History. Evanston, IL:
Northwestern University Press.
LeVine, R., & Sangree, W. H. (1962). The Diffusion of
Age Group Organization in East Africa: A Controlled
Comparison.Africa, 32 (2), 107–110.AGRICULTURAL RITES
The manner in which different African cultural
groups perceive and use land influences their agri-
cultural rituals. In those societies that rely heavily
on agriculture for both their sustenance and econ-
omy, compared with herding peoples, the rituals
surrounding agriculture are central to the people
and the most elaborate. They are sacred rites that
secure the communities’ continued survival.
In many cultures, the agricultural cycle, along
with its accompanying weather, mark time and
define the year: planting, harvesting, the dry sea-
son, the rainy season, followed by planting again.
The names of months found among the Latuka
people—“Let them dig!” “Grain in the Ear,”
“Dirty Mouth,” and “Sweet grain”—show how
agricultural cycles influence everyday time reck-
oning. People traditionally keep track of their ages
in terms of how many agricultural cycles they
have lived through. Children are named according
to these cycles, such as Azmera, a female name
from Ethiopia meaning harvest, and Wekesa, a
male name from the Luya of Kenya meaning born
during harvest time.
Agricultural rites can be divided into three gen-
eral categories: those for the planting, maturation,
and harvesting of crops. Planting rituals prepare
the ground, seeds, tools, and people for the
upcoming growing season to ensure the crop’s
success. Maturation rituals occur once the crops
begin growing and address factors that can keep
crops from ripening properly, such as not enough,Agricultural Rites 17