or too much water, insects, or animals. Harvest
rituals give thanks for the crop and are the most
festive occasions. All of the rituals in the agricul-
tural cycle acknowledge and propitiate various
spiritual forces involved in the producing of food.
This entry describes rites in each cycle and looks
at related mythology.
The Three CyclesPlanting Rituals
Rituals in preparation for planting are regarded
seriously in communities that rely on agriculture
because the proper timing and performance of the
rituals are the difference between an abundance of
crops and hunger or between survival and death.
Timing planting rituals involves complex observa-
tions that include celestial bodies such as the
moon and stars, the behavior of animals, insects,
water, and air. Plantings are initiated when the
outcome will be most favorable, not for the sake
of one of these particular events. For example, the
position of the moon can be a key factor in plant-
ing; however, if the conditions with water or the
behavior of animals are not favorable, planting
will not occur just because the moon is favorable.
Preparation also includes securing permission
to plant. The Bobo ask permission from nature
spirits and their creator godWurobefore planting
because they believe that every act that takes
something from nature has a negative impact.
Wuro is responsible for nature’s balance. Masks
are used to chase evil from the community and
purify the land. These rituals last for 3 days. In
Senegal, sacrifices of millet cake are made in the
evening. If, on the next day, the cakes have disap-
peared, the land can be cultivated. If not, the land
must not be used for cultivation.
Sometimes restrictions are placed on people in
the community. Among the Ik of Uganda, women
are forbidden from felling any trees, burning
grass, or quarreling before the planting lest an
animal be slaughtered for the transgression. One
restriction or taboo found in many cultures, such
as the Dogon and Ndebele, is that cultivation and
burial cannot happen on the same land.
Planting rituals include special attention to
seeds. The Ik gather seeds from each family. The
men gather on a nearby hill, plant a tree to sym-
bolize the passing of the year without problems,
and the communal seeds are sown. Among the
Dagara, each household brings sample seeds to
the house of the chief of the earth shrine. Some
seeds are known, such as millet, corn, and
groundnuts (peanuts); others are not to be named.
They are magical seeds. Naming them would
destroy their power. They do not grow into plants,
but help the other seeds.
The priest of the Earth shrine takes a single seed
from each family’s basket and places it on the Earth
shrine. The following day, this ceremony would be
repeated by men at their farms in the presence of
their families. The women would then plant the
seeds. The Lozi assemble at sunrise at an altar of
sticks and clay. Each household places seeds, hoes,
and axes on a dish on the altar. The chief then per-
forms a ritual asking for blessing of both the seeds
and the implements used in planting and harvest-
ing. The Akamba, Gikuyu, Shilluk, Shona, Sonjo,
Lozi, Lunda, Nuba, and Tikar have rituals to bless
seeds and work implements. Other communities
offer animal sacrifices when it is time to plant.Maturation Rituals
After seeds are planted, it is important that they
mature to plants and produce crops. Rains and
protection from birds, insects, and animals are
important factors. Rains are needed to both nour-
ish the seeds and prevent birds from digging them
up and eating them. Sacrifices are made by the
Akamba and Gikuyu if there is a delay in the
rains. After the communal seeds have been
planted, Ik women present beer to the male elders
who are waiting on a nearby hill. As the women
proceed up the hill dressed in traditional goatskin
skirts with leg bells, they sing joyous songs for the
rains to fall. Once they reach the elders, the senior
elder takes a symbolic sip, and then the other
elders do so according to seniority. This is fol-
lowed by communal dancing. In Burkina Faso,
appeals are made to the ancestors to address
caterpillars and crickets.Harvest Rituals
These rituals often mark the New Year, which is
a time of thanksgiving and joyous celebration. In
Swaziland, the 6-day-long Festival of the First
Fruits of the New Year, orIncwala, is an important18 Agricultural Rites