expected to watch over the community’s cattle
(which are highly regarded as God’s unique gift
to the Maasai), participate in cattle raids, and
kill a lion with their bare hands. At the end of
the Eunoto ceremony, the young men’s hair is
shaved, thus formally indicating the passage to
manhood. In addition to having their hair
shaved, they also have their skin painted with
ochre in preparation for marriage. They may
then marry and start families.
Among the Twa, when a girl’s first menses
appear, which is considered a special blessing, the
girl participates in a rite of passage known as
Elima. Secluded in a house for at least a month
with other girls who have also just started men-
struating, the Twa girl is instructed by an adult
woman about being a Twa woman. She is taught,
among other things, the history of her people and
how to be a good mother and a good wife. When
the instruction is over, the girls come out dancing,
and the whole community takes part in the Elima
festivities. Having been properly instructed and
trained, the girls are now eligible for marriage.
Among the Anlo-Ewe people, female puberty
rites are known asNugbeto. Like everywhere else
in Africa, they are communal and provide the
forum within which young women learn about
the social responsibilities that come with woman-
hood. Nugbeto rites are conducted by highly
regarded older women, who share and impart
their wisdom and life experiences onto the young
women under their care.
In summary, puberty, the beginning of the
capacity to reproduce, is regarded as a moment of
paramount importance in African religion. Thus,
as children mature physically and therefore sexu-
ally, a special puberty rite of passage, initiation, is
designed to help them move smoothly from child-
hood into adulthood and contribute to the welfare
of their family and community.
Ama MazamaSeealsoCircumcision; Fertility; Initiation; Marriage;
Procreation; Rites of Passage; Rituals
Further Readings
Imasogie, O. (1985).African Traditional Religion.
Ibadan, Nigeria: University Press.
Mbiti, J. (1990).African Religions and Philosophy.
London & Nairobi, Kenya: Heinemann.
Zahan, D. (1979).The Religion,Spirituality,and
Thought of Traditional Africa(K. E. Martin & L. M.
Martin, Trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.PUNISHMENT
Punishment generally refers to the act or instance
of imposing a penalty on a person or group of
persons who are in breach of the laws, rules, or
customs of a society. In many African communi-
ties (despite the existence of modern judiciary
institutions), African traditional religion functions
as an important source of normative moral behav-
ior and social conduct. It does so mainly through
the imposition of taboos or prohibitions and pro-
vides sanctions for their infraction, as well as pro-
cedures for redemption. Punishable offenses in
traditional African communities or societies range
from grievous ones, such as the practice of sorcery
and witchcraft and murder, to less egregious ones,
such as falsely accusing a neighbor of wrongdoing
or failing to restrain one’s sheep from destroying a
neighbor’s crops.
In African traditional religious belief, God is
considered as the utmost upholder of moral order
and justice. He or she therefore wields the ulti-
mate power to punish those who do evil acts, such
as harming their fellow human beings or destroy-
ing the environment. Among the Akan of Ghana,
a person who has been wronged will often say to
the offenderOnyame betua wo ka(“God will pay
you back [bring retribution on you]”), especially
when he or she lacks the ability to punish the
offender. The Barundi and Banyarwanda people
also say in a proverb, “God exercises vengeance in
silence.” Mysterious diseases and accidental
deaths are sometimes considered evidence of
God’s punishment.
However, the responsibility of enforcing day-
to-day morality through punishment is largely
exercised by divinities and ancestors (and other
spirits), as well as by human beings. They are
believed to do so at the behest of God.
Divinities are essentially spirits believed to have
been created by God to take charge of various
spheres of life. Each divinity is assigned a specificPunishment 547