therefore no surprise that the color red has had a spe-
cial, sacred, and spiritual significance for people of
African ancestry since ancient times. Thus, the use of
the color red on a crown of a Pharaoh, in body
adornment for social status, or on the clothing of an
Orisha or Lwa devotee attests to the political and
spiritual importance that people of African ancestry
have placed on red as a communication code, as well
as a color with a potentially powerful visual impact.
The first evidence of the special status of red in
African culture was around 3000 BC, when, in
Kemet (ancient Egypt), red was connected with
political events, societal position, spiritual cere-
monies, and warrior courage. Indeed, when
Pharaoh Menes (a.k.a. Namer) united Upper and
Lower Kemet (ancient Egypt) into one powerful
kingdom, approximately 3000 BC, the Red and
White Crown was placed on his head to represent
the new land. The red was associated with Lower
Kemet, whereas the white was associated with
Upper Kemet. Menes was said to be the Pharaoh of
two Nations and wearer of two Crowns. It was the
start of the 1st dynasty, and the foundation of a
central government was institutionalized. Under
the Red (and White) Crown, Kemet developed
written communication systems, trade routes, effec-
tive industries, agricultural techniques, and the sci-
ence of erecting permanent pyramids. It was during
this period as well that a strong army was created
to actively protect and defend its eastern borders
by spilling the red blood of their enemies as com-
manded by the Pharaoh wearing a Red Crown.
During the 4th dynasty of the Old Kingdom,
red granite blocks of stone were used as the build-
ing material to construct the first known true
shaped pyramid. The Great Red Pyramid of
Sneferu (approximately 345 feet, 2600 BC) in
Dahshur Necropolis of the 4th dynasty is sur-
passed in height and grandeur only by the Great
Pyramid of Khufu (approximately 480 feet, 2560
BC) and the Great Pyramid of Khafre (approxi-
mately 471 feet, 2530 BC) in Giza Necropolis
built during that same period. The strength and
durability of red granite stone blocks were known
by the pyramid engineers, stone craftsmen, and
interior artisans of Kemet. However, its color was
also visually and aesthetically attractive to the
eyes and a symbolic statement of royalty that
added to its choice as the building material used
on and in sacred structures and places. Red granite
blocks were first used as a building material in the
tomb of Pharaoh Den of the 1st dynasty (2985
BC) in Umm el-Qa’ab at Abydos. Kemet’s geo-
graphical southern neighbors, the Nubians, used
local red sandstone as well for good construction
masonry for Tantamani’s pyramid.
Elsewhere and later in Africa, we find the same
continued reverence for red. For example, in Lower
Congolese society, the color red had a multifunc-
tional use as a symbolic language, informed with
mythical belief concerning social status, develop-
mental state, health condition, healing power,
leadership ability, and warrior skills. Indeed, a red-
colored painted body represents physical beauty,
sexual desire, and maturity among the teenagers
who are moving to adulthood and getting ready for
marriage. A person reddened by painting, smear-
ing, or daubing a pigment from pomade, red tree
bark, red powder, coral wood, or palm oil on their
body or clothing can denote weakened physical
condition—old age, pregnant, sickened, and
wounded. Aged people’s bodies were rubbed with
nkula-red and palm oil to promote good health and
healing. Similarly, pregnant women, especially
those who experienced miscarriages, daub their
bodies with red pomade to enhance the belief that,
next time, there will be a healthy birth. When the
child is born, they are smeared with red pomade on
their bodies for several months, and amulets are
placed on them to givengolo(physical strength and
force). The meanings associated with the color red
extend to protection from evil spirits or the ability
to have magical powers. However, in the case of a
severe negative health condition, this information
is symbolically communicated in the society by red-
dening the skin of the person to warn of contami-
nation risk, to report that the person has recovered
from contagious illness or is released from conva-
lescence seclusion. Wounds and sores are also
smeared with red pomade or palm oil after the
infected and gashed area has been cleansed with
water to accelerate the natural healing process.
In addition, the color red took on another func-
tional meaning in a spiritual and social context in
Lower Congolese society when a king died or
when a warrior wanted to be empowered with
courage. The special red cloth that was wrapped
around the corpse of the king was called
makamba ma nkosi. A huge doll is made from
cloths, mats, and blankets contributed by the564 Red