Zulu, Soshangane. These core Zulu people are said
to have conquered or annexed the Tsonga who
were known by some as the Mashangane.
Thus, in many traditions and customs, the Tsonga
are like other Nguni-speaking populations. Their
language is part of the great Bantu system of lan-
guages found in East, Central, and Southern Africa.
They have retained much of the terminology that
relates to clans, social and kinship ties, and cere-
monies. The custom oflobola, for instance, although
frowned on by the church that has captured many
Tsonga, is still found among the masses of Tsonga.
To break the tradition of bride’s price would be to
destroy the heart of the Tsonga marriage custom.
Consequently, the people have maintained their wed-
ding traditions despite a profound commitment to
Westernization as seen by churchgoers.
European writers during the era of apartheid in
South Africa sought to divide and conquer the
people by making some of the Tsonga believe that
if they accepted the Christian doctrine, they would
be superior to those who practice African tradi-
tional religion. There is no state religion of the
Tsonga; however, there is a powerful pride in the
achievements of the Gaza Empire, and in many
ways, the deference paid to the first leader of the
people to make a mighty kingdom is the fountain
of their constant use of Soshangane as a figure of
great respect.
Molefi Kete AsanteSeealsoXhosa; Zulu
Further Readings
Beinart, W. (1994).Twentieth Century South Africa.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Beukes, P. (1994).The Religious Smuts. Cape Town,
South Africa: Humaan and Rousseau.
Dalby, D. (Ed.). (1970).Language and History in Africa.
London: Cass.
Fage, J. D., & Oliver, R. (Eds.). (1975–1986).The
Cambridge History of Africa(8 vols.). New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Guy, J. (1979).The Destruction of the Zulu Kingdom:
The Civil War in Zululand,1879–1884. London:
Longman.
Houghton, D. H., & Dagut, J. (1972–1973).Source
Material on the South African Economy,1860–1970
(3 vols.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Human Rights Watch/Africa. (1994).South Africa:
Impunity for Human Rights Abuses in Two
Homelands:Reports on KwaZulu and
Bophuthatswana. New York: Author.
Inskeep, R. R. (1979).The Peopling of Southern Africa.
New York: Barnes and Noble.TSWANA
Tswana is a group of Bantu people living in
Southern Africa. Batswana are mostly found in
Botswana, South Africa, and, to some smaller
extent, Namibia and Zimbabwe. The origin of
this group of people is not clearly known,
although some scholars suppose that they came
from the Great East Africa Lakes before they
spread to southern Africa. Nevertheless, history
documents that by AD 1600 they had already settled
in their present settlements. In their settlement, the
Tswana had their own peculiar way of doing
things that included political, social, and religious
organizations. These ways were not easily perceiv-
able to strangers of Batswana culture. So this fact
disqualifies the colonial mentality that the
Tswanas had no culture, especially in religion.
The Tswana deity is called Modimo, which
literally means the Great High God (Spirit).
Modimo can be neither personified nor gendered.
It is something that cannot be accommodated in a
building or in space. Nevertheless, Modimo has
the several attributes that include being supreme
(Hlaa-Hlaa-Macholo), invincible (gaOitsiwe), the
source (motlhodi), the Enabler (montshi), Mother
(mme), and the Light (lesedi). Modimo lives in
the sky. Modimo wills good to humankind, and
Modimo preserves justice. Modimo normally acts
throughBadimo(ancestors). Last, but not least,
Modimo may intervene directly to draw attention
to the breach of taboos.
Something of chief interest about Modimo is
that, like most African deities, it is neuter in gen-
der. It is an attribute that seeks to empower both
men and women together in societal functions,
duties, and privileges. Thus, the representation
of Modimo in Setswanaspiritual space by the
indigenous divining set (ditaola) illustrates that
domination of one gender, male or female, was not
characteristic. This attribute should be emulated
in all religions because it does not marginalizeTswana 673