between the interests of Yorkshire and Lancashire without either
ceasing to feel loyalty to England. Divisions between England and
Scotland may not preclude common action in Europe by the British,
and so on. Similarly residents of Harlem may also feel themselves to
be citizens of New York City, and New York State, as well as of the
United States. Clearly the influence of geographical nearness will be
influenced by a host of other factors which may affect the strength of
local or regional loyalties. For example, how mobile is the popu-
lation? If a resident of Haworth is commuting daily to Bradford and
was born in nearby Keighley, then the West Riding identity may be
more important than to someone born in Lancashire. How socially
and linguistically divided are the geographical communities? A
Gaelic-speaking Scot may feel a greater separation from England than
an English-speaking one. The nature of the economy may also be
important, e.g. a self-sufficient peasant agricultural community feel-
ing much stronger local ties than a university-based one.
As the Scottish/English dimension also suggests, the influence of
historical conquests and of migration is a major factor in these sorts
of divisions. Scots have, of course, historically moved (many would
say been driven) both southwards into England and across the sea to
Northern Ireland and North America. Here they, and their descen-
dants, may retain, to a larger or smaller extent, a Scottish identity
that may cut across their ‘residential’ identity. In New York almost
everyone has such a secondary identity, being for example Puerto
Rican, Jewish, Irish or African-American. In Bradford a substantial
minority of inhabitants are of Bangladeshi and Pakistani origin. Such
secondary or ‘ethnic’ identities are often related to former nationality
(e.g. Irish-American), current religion (Jewish) or colour (African-
American). Ethnicity may also relate to tribal affiliation, way of life
and descent (e.g. Gypsies) or to a hereditary social status (caste in the
traditional Indian social system). The term covers a variety of
‘horizontal’ lines of division dividing geographical communities into
recognised subgroups with, to some extent, different ways of life and
prestige.
These ‘ethnic’ identities may be of greater or lesser social and
political importance depending upon a similar variety of factors to
those influencing localism. Major factors include their relative size
and economic and political power. Thus a small group occupying an
unimportant but useful economic role (e.g. Chinese or Indians108 PROCESSES