Caliphate (political leadership) (Fischer, 1980). Other differences
include the Shi’ite’s greater emphasis on the importance of religious
scholars and the role of martyrs. The relationship between the
strongly developed traditions of Koranic law and the modern state,
and the role of electoral institutions are matters of considerable
debate within Islamic countries.
In practice contemporary states with a commitment to Islam differ
markedly in their political and economic arrangements. For instance,
Saudi Arabia, several other Sunni-dominated states around the Gulf,
Brunei and, to some extent, Jordan retain a dynastic rule in which the
leading family of a recently tribal society continue to rule without
any great formalisation of constitutional matters. Considerable
revenues derived from oil are used in a paternalistic way to ensure
the loyalty of the indigenous population – many recent immigrants
being denied participation in government and citizenship. Various
more or less consultative assemblies have been convened, but have
frequently been dissolved if they have proved overly critical. Social
practices vary, but in Saudi Arabia in particular, traditional attitudes
toward women, alcohol and the like are strictly enforced through
religious courts interpreting the Koran in accord with the Wahhabist
extreme conservative interpretation of the Sunni tradition. In
Afghanistan similar beliefs culminated in the Taliban regime effec-
tively banning female work, education and even hospital treatment,
also in the destruction of world famous historic monuments.
In contrast, the Shi’ite state of Iran following a revolution against
the Shah of Iran has adopted a much more original constitution.
Power is divided between a government and a leader, or Council of
Leaders. The government (president, prime minister and cabinet) is
based upon an elected National Consultative Assembly. The Islamic
Scholar or Scholars head the judicial system, act as Commander in
Chief and vet the suitability of candidates for the presidency. A
particular Islamic school of thought is proclaimed to be the official
religion of Iran, whilst Zoroastrians, Christian and Jews are the only
recognised and tolerated (non-Islamic) religious minorities. The
government’s responsibility to promote Islam is spelt out, and it has
the power to confiscate wealth derived from ‘usury, usurpation,
bribery’, etc. (Article 49 of the Constitution). Legislative power is
divided between the National Consultative Council and a Council of
Guardians – Islamic scholars who must review legislation to ensure154 STATES