Further reading: Crispin Bates, ed., Community, Empire,
and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora (New York:
Palgrave, 2001); Anil Mahabir, “Diaspora of Hindus
in South America,” Hinduism Today (January/Febru-
ary, 2001), p. 18. Steven Vertovec, The Hindu Diaspora:
Comparative Patterns (London: Routledge, 2000).
caste
The Indian term jati (birth) is usually translated
as “caste,” which is a Portuguese word. It refers to
the community into which one is born. In VEDIC
tradition the concept of VARNA stratified society
into four groups: BRAHMIN (priests), KSHATRIYA
(warriors), VAISHYA (common people, including
merchants), and SHUDRA (servant classes). The
simple stratification of the Vedic tradition became
the template for a much wider formal social strati-
fication within Indian society.
In addition to the four classes of the earlier
scheme, a fifth class of people known as untouch-
ables (now referred to as Dalits) emerged, possibly
when certain non-Aryan tribes began to be inte-
grated into the larger ARYAN cultural framework.
“UNTOUCHABILITY” involved cultural concepts of
POLLUTION; “purer” classes and castes avoided eat-
ing food with certain other classes or taking food
that had been touched by certain other classes.
At its most extreme, this required that the lowest
castes not touch or have physical contact with
upper castes at all. The lowest strata often per-
formed work that put them in contact with dead
animals, leather, and excrement, all of which were
considered polluting.
The loose array of four classes (somewhat
confused in the south of India, where the British
incorrectly classified many agriculturists as Shu-
dras) sprouted additional castes that amounted
to guilds that protected certain occupations from
encroachment by other groups. An intricate
array of occupationally defined castes and sub-
castes emerged. Marriage between castes is very
restricted; even low-status castes jealously guard
against intermarriage with groups that are lower
in the hierarchy.
Brahmins are considered the purest in the
hierarchy, by virtue of their cultivation of the
ancient tradition of the Vedas and their strict veg-
etarianism. They may give food to any group, but
they will only accept food from or eat food with
other Brahmins. Certain Brahmins who are con-
sidered purer than others will not associate with
or marry those other Brahmins.
Caste ranking has never been and is not now
eternally fixed; however, it usually takes more
than a generation for a given caste to move up
or down the hierarchy. The primary means of
advancement is to restrict meat-eating. Vegetari-
anism is a highly valued sign of purity, and avoid-
ing all meat has aided more than one caste in
gaining higher status, if the practice is sustained
and universal. Second in importance is avoidance
of marriage and association with groups that are
low on the caste scale. Third, members must find
different forms of employment that do not involve
polluting substances. Slipping in any of these
areas might cause a caste to lose status.
The Indian Constitution, which was written
by the untouchable B. R. Ambedkar, outlaws
caste. The national and state governments have
instituted strict affirmative action in the makeup
of parliaments (untouchables and disadvantaged
tribals are assured a percentage of seats) and in
government hiring. Many great strides have been
made in modern India to abolish the evil of caste,
but it is an ancient and deeply rooted system that
may take generations to abolish, just as it took
two centuries to dismantle discriminatory racial
laws in the United States.Further reading: Christopher J. Fuller, ed., Caste Today
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Richard
Lannoy, The Speaking Tree: A Study of Indian Culture
and Society (London and New York: Oxford University
Press, 1971); McKim Marriot, India through Hindu Cat-
egories (New Delhi: Sage, 1990); Brian K. Smith, Clas-
sifying the Universe: The Ancient Indian Varna System
and the Origins of Caste (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1994).K 100 caste