by including the life of Christ in his teaching.
Roman Catholic thinkers such as Brahmabandhav
Upadhyaya (1861–1907) and currently Raimundo
Panikkar (b. 1918) attempted to integrate Hindu
concepts into an Indian Christian theology. In
1899, in spite of British attempts to suppress his
efforts, Upadhyaya established a Catholic ashram,
called Kasthalic Matha. These efforts at syncre-
tism have contributed to the development of a
Christian theology that includes Hindu religious
categories. Such attempts have always had to
answer charges from both Western Christians and
Hindus that the process of articulating an Indian
Christianity distorts both faiths.
On a more practical level, two Frenchmen,
Jules Monchanin (1895–1957) and Henri Le Saux
(1910–73), the latter better known as ABHISHIK-
TANANDA, tried to combine elements of Western and
Eastern monastic practice. In 1950 they founded
Saccidananda Ashram in Tamil Nadu, South India.
The pair adapted Benedictine monasticism to the
Indian ascetic tradition, which resulted in what
has been termed Christian SANNYAS (renunciation).
Both Protestants and Catholics have found points
of connection with Hindu and Christian practice
and spirituality, ranging from the monastic experi-
ments of Dom Bede Griffiths (1906–93) to the
philosophical and scientific contributions of Ravi
Ravindra to the ashram movement founded by the
Methodist E. Stanley Jones (1884–1973).
In the post–World War II environment, the
value of world faith communities to one another
has been an increasing theme in religious writings.
The World Council of Churches has emphasized
interreligious dialogue, although it has taken
second place to building intra-Christian relations.
In like measure, in 1964, in the midst of Vatican
II, the Roman Catholic Church established the
Pontifical Council for Inter-Religious Dialogue.
One of its major departments is designed to build
new levels of understanding and respect of Hin-
duism. The council supported Pope John Paul
II’s (1920–2005) periodical meetings with Hindu
and other religious leaders voicing his concern for
interreligious dialogue in which the followers of
the various religions can discover shared elements
of spirituality, while acknowledging their differ-
ences. As the 20th century came to a close, Pope
John Paul II offered an apology for the attitudes
of mistrust and hostility assumed by Catholics
toward followers of other religions, as part of a
broad papal acknowledgment of the failings of
Christians in pursuit of their missions.
Most recently, religious leaders in India have
led in initiating interreligious dialogue with the
founding of such organizations as the World Fel-
lowship of Religions (1973) and the World Union
(1958). In the DIASPORA, Hindus have been very
active in many national interreligious councils
and have been especially prominent in the Coun-
cil for a Parliament of the World’s Religions based
in Chicago, Illinois, which holds international
conferences in different parts of the world every
five years. Among North American organizations
that attempt to encourage and focus on dialogue
between Hindus and Christians is the Society
for Hindu-Christian Studies, which is currently
administered by scholars at Notre Dame, Indiana,
and Thiruvanmiyur, Madras (Chennai), India.
They also publish the Journal of Hindu-Christian
Studies.
As the new century begins, India has been
hit with a wave of anti-Christian activity fueled
by anger over the proselytizing activity of the
increasing number of missionaries. Occasion-
ally, this has erupted in violence. These violent
incidents have only increased attempts by Hindu
and Christian leaders to pursue understanding
through dialogue.Further reading: B. Animananda, The Blade: The Life
and Work of Brahmabandhab Upadhyay (Calcutta: Roy
& Son, 1945); Harold Coward, Hindu-Christian Dia-
logue (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1989); Stephen
A. Graham, Ordinary Man, Extraordinary Mission: The
Life and Work of E. Stanley Jones (Nashville, Tenn.:
Abingdon Press, 2005); Bede Griffiths, The Golden
String (New York: Kennedy, 1953); ———, The OtherChristian-Hindu relations 115 J