law,” “right conduct,” “duty,” and “social order.”
Its root, dhri, means “to hold up.”
The social concept of dharma emerges from
the VEDIC notion of RITA or “cosmic order.” In this
worldview, dharma (the social order) is main-
tained by dharma (right conduct and the fulfill-
ment of duty and religious law). Social activity
was traditionally very much circumscribed by
tradition; following dharma meant doing what
was required.
Starting as early as the fourth century B.C.E., a
voluminous literature in Sanskrit was created called
DHARMASHASTRA (authoritative texts on dharma).
These included the Dharmasutras (aphoristic texts).
Dharma later became personified as a god in
mythology and literature. His son was YUDHISHTHIRA,
one of the five PANDAVAS in the MAHABHARATA story.
In the Jain tradition, dharma refers to the
complex of duties required of a Jain. Jains recog-
nize 10 forms of dharma that monks are to follow
(see JAINISM). The word dharma can be used in
association with any religion or faith, such as the
Zoroastrian dharma.
Further reading: Wendy Doniger and Brian K. Smith,
trans., The Laws of Manu (New York: Penguin Books,
1991); P. V. Kane, History of the Dharma Shastra, 5 vols.
(Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1968);
Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, J. Duncan, and M. Derrett,
The Concept of Duty in South Asia (New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House, 1978).
Dharmashastra
The Indian literary genre of Dharmashastra
(authoritative scripture prescribing the rules of
right conduct) began around the fourth century
B.C.E. It included the subgenre of Dharmasutras,
or aphoristic works about DHARMA. Traditionally,
the LAW S OF MANU (Manusmriti or Manavadharma-
shastra) is considered the first and most authorita-
tive text, written by the legendary MANU.
Dharmashastra literature prescribes the laws,
norms, rules, and regulations of life for both the
individual and the community. It covers social
norms, ethics, and moral tenets but also includes
direction on the proper performance of rituals and
ceremonies. It is usually quite specific concerning
diet, domestic law, the proper conduct of kings,
and, most important, the proper conduct of each
caste. Major Dharmashastras were written by
Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana, and Vasishtha,
among others.Further reading: Wendy Doniger with Brian K. Smith,
The Laws of Manu (London: Penguin Books, 1991); P.
V. Kane, History of the Dharmasastra (Ancient and Medi-
eval Religious and Civil Law in India), 5 vols. (Poona:
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1968); Patrick
Olivelle, The Dharmasutras (Oxford: Oxford University
Press. 1999).Dhumavati See DASHA MAHAVIDYA.
dhyna See MEDITATION.
Diaspora
Although there is some disagreement about the
term Hindu Diaspora, most members of the world-
wide Hindu community use it to describe the
millions of Hindus of South Asian origin who live
outside India. While the majority of the world’s
Hindus reside in India, those living abroad have
established Hindu practices and communities in
places such as AUSTRALIA, Canada, the CARIBBEAN
REGION, the UNITED KINGDOM, Fiji, MAURITIUS, and
the UNITED STATES of America. The practices of
overseas Hinduism have had a significant influ-
ence within India, because of frequent travel and
contact between family members and institutions
located in India and abroad.
While exact numbers of overseas Hindus are
difficult to determine, partly because of census
restrictions (for example, the United States cen-
sus does not record religious affiliation), scholarsDiaspora 131 J