temples and shrines with SHIVA LINGAM, in addi-
tion to many other temples to Shiva that can
be pilgrimage destinations. SHAKTAS or goddess
worshippers have 53 shrines where parts of the
goddess are said to have fallen when she was cut
into pieces.
Among important pilgrimage cities are Gaya,
BENARES (Varanasi), HARIDVAR, and Ujjain. Impor-
tant rivers are GANGES, YAMUNA, Godavari, Nar-
mada, and CAUVERY.
Perhaps the most significant pilgrimage site
for Hindus is Benares. The primary aim of pil-
grims in Benares is to bathe in the holy Ganges,
which is said to confer heaven upon those who
bathe in her. People nearing the end of their lives
often go there, so that their ashes can be thrown
into the river, and they can reach liberation from
birth and rebirth.
Further reading: Anne Feldhaus, Connected Places:
Region, Pilgrimage and Geographical Imagination in India
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Baidyanath
Saraswati, Traditions of Tirthas in India: The Anthropol-
ogy of Hindu Pilgrimage (Varanasi: N. K. Bose Memorial
Foundation, 1983); Man Mohan Sharma, Yatra: Pilgrim-
ages in the Western Himalayas (Noida: Trishul, 1989).
pingala See NADI.
pipal tree
The fig or pipal tree is foremost among the sacred
trees of Indian tradition. This lush tree can grow
to a huge size with a large canopy. It has large,
rather thin leaves that make a rustling sound in
a breeze, which tradition compares to the sound
of the lute or veena. No one is allowed to cut
down, remove branches, or tear off leaves from
a pipal tree.
Some associate the pipal tree particularly
with VISHNU, who is said to have been born under
one. Often a pipal tree is officially “married” to
a margosa tree when they are planted together.
A solemn ceremony mimicking an actual mar-
riage ceremony is performed, often before an
entire village. Sometimes the tree is also invested
with the sacred thread, as a BRAHMIN is. The tree
plays a role in certain brahminical rituals, and
sometimes in marriage ceremonies. Branches of
pipal wood were used in the VEDIC fire ritual. It
was under a pipal tree that the BUDDHA reached
his enlightenment. Many legends, myths, and
stories in Indian literature refer to events and
occurrences that take place under this, the most
sacred of Indian trees.Further reading: James Fergusson, Tree and Serpent
Worship (Delhi: Oriental, 1971); P. Thomas, Hindu
Religion Customs and Manners, 3d ed. (Bombay: D. B.
Taraporevala Sons, 1956).pitri See ANCESTOR WORSHIP.
pollution/purity
Pollution and purity have been important social
and religious concepts in Hinduism from ancient
times. Pollution often entails substances related to
birth, death, blood, bodily processes, and leftover
food.
The concepts of purity and pollution are cen-
tral to the notion of caste in India. People whose
traditional occupations put them in contact with
leather, dead animals, toilets and sewers, and
sweeping (leftover substances) are usually con-
sidered outcastes or UNTOUCHABLES (Dalit). At the
other social extreme are BRAHMINS, who never
have contact with such substances and, ide-
ally, deal only with learning, books, or temple
rituals. They are considered pure. Middle castes,
which sometimes have contact with polluting
substances in their traditional work, have an
intermediate purity status. For example, barbers,
who have contact with bodily substances as they
cut people’s hair, are seen as lower caste, though
not untouchable.pollution/purity 329 J