armed conflict. More recently Shiv Sena has begun
to recruit members of the lower castes, particu-
larly Dalits.
In 1992 Shiv Sena boasted that it played a
central role in the destruction of the Babri Masjid
Mosque in AYODHYA. In fact, Shiv Sena activ-
ists arrived after the demolition, but they were
heavily involved in the riots that followed in
Mumbai.
More recently Shiv Sena has formed an alli-
ance with the BHARATIYA JANATA PARTY (BJP). Since
the BJP losses in the 2004 election the alliance
appears to be collapsing. As Bal Thackeray ages,
much of the leadership has fallen to his sons, a
condition that has weakened the group as a politi-
cal force.
Further reading: Sikata Banerjee, Warriors in Politics:
Hindu Nationalism, Violence and the Shiv Sena in India
(Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2000); Julia M. Eck-
ert, The Charisma of Direct Action: Power Politics and
the Shiv Sena (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003);
Dipankar Gupta, Nativism in the Metropolis: The Shiv
Sena in Bombay (New Delhi: Manohar, 1982); Mary
Fainsod Katzenstein, Ethnicity and Equality: The Shiv
Sena Party and Preferential Politics in Bombay (Ithaca,
N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1979).
shraddha See FUNERAL RITES.
shrauta sutra See VEDAS.
Shrirangam
Shrirangam is an island in the CAUVERY River in
Tamil Nadu, near Trichinopoly (Tirucchirappalli),
where Lord Ranganatha, a form of VISHNU, resides.
The Vaishnavite saint RAMANUJA taught and over-
saw the temple here, as did the saint Periyalvar,
whose daughter ANDAL reached sainthood here.
The site has a long tradition and is a popular PIL-
GRIMAGE center.
Further reading: V. N. Hari Rao, History of the Sri-
rangam Temple (Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara University,
1976); M. Somasundaram, The Island Shrine of Sri Ran-
ganatha (Tiruchirappalli: St. Joseph’s Industrial School
Press, 1965).shruti
Shruti (from shru, to hear) refers to sacred texts
that are received through a kind of revelation,
rather than written by humans. Shruti texts are
the primary authority in Hinduism; they are
complemented, but never superseded, by smriti,
or human-made texts.
Shruti texts are understood to be heard from a
transcendent source. The VEDIC MANTRA texts and
their adjuncts, the BRAHMANAS, which include in
them the ARANYAKAS and UPANISHADS, are accepted
by all as being shruti. These texts are considered
to have been “heard” or “seen” by the Vedic RISHIS
(seers). Other texts are sometimes given the status
of shruti by certain groups or regional traditions,
such as the BHAGAVAD GITA, the Tamil TEVARAM, or
the TANTRIC AGAMAS.Further reading: Kalus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of
Hinduism (Albany: State University of New York Press,
1989); M. Winternitz, History of Indian Literature.
Translated by S. Ketkar (New York: Russell & Russell,
1971).Shudra
The term Shudra originates in the ancient RIG
VEDA; it refers to the servant class, as the lowest
group in a four-part division (VARNA) of human
society. It is used in present-day India for castes
that are low in the social hierarchy, such as bar-
bers, washermen, and others who perform per-
sonal services.
Each region of India has its own notions of
what constitutes a Shudra. Below the Shudras in
the informal caste hierarchy (the caste system
was legally abolished after independence) are theShudra 409 J