Dalits, untouchables, who are sometimes referred
to as the “fifth” and “unclean” stratum of society.
Many of them are employed as sweepers, refuse re-
movers, and leather workers (See UNTOUCHABILITY).
Further reading: Maurice Carstairs, The Twice Born
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967); R. S.
Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India, 2d ed. (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1980).
Shurpanakha See RAMAYANA.
Shvetambara
Shvetambara is one of the two branches of JAINISM.
The name, which means “one who wears white gar-
ments,” refers to the fact that its monks may wear
clothing, as opposed to the DIGAMBARA monks, who
are required to be nude. The Shvetambaras prevail
among the Jains of northern and western India.
There is little doubt that MAHAVIRA, the great
leader and promulgator of the Jain tradition, was a
naked ascetic, as were his early followers, but the
scriptures that are recognized by the Shvetambaras
do not require nudity. The Shvetambaras accept
the extant version of the early Jain scriptures,
the ANGAS, and they follow, study, and preach its
teachings. The Digambaras believe the authentic
versions have been lost. The only text mutually
accepted by both Shvetambaras and Digambaras
is the TATTVARTHA SUTRA.
Shvetambaras also believe that women may
attain liberation. Because women are not allowed
to be naked ascetics, Digambaras believe that they
cannot reach the level of detachment needed to
become liberated; a woman must be reborn in
a male body to reach liberation. Shvetambaras
believe that Mallinatha, one of the 24 TIRTHANKARAS
(saints) of our half-era (avasarpini), was a woman.
In general Digambaras (who predominate in
southern India) and Shvetambaras are in nearly
complete doctrinal agreement, but their com-
munities developed separately and do not share
festivals or sacred events. The Shvetambaras cel-
ebrate their major festival Paryushan around the
recitation of the Kalpa Sutra. In the past, the two
communities have fought bitterly over control of
certain shrines, but in general they live in comity
in places where they overlap.Further reading: Paul Dundas, The Jains (London: Rout-
ledge, 1992); Uttam Kamal Jain, Jaina Sects and Schools
(Delhi: Concept, 1975); P. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of
Purification (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990).Shvetashvatara Upanishad
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is generally dated
around the third century B.C.E., making it one
of the later UPANISHADS. It is the only orthodox
Upanishad that refers to a sectarian divinity, in
this case RUDRA-SHIVA. It understands Shiva to be
the same as the BRAHMAN, the ultimate reality, who
had not previously been characterized in purely
theistic terms. The text equates the terms PURUSHA,
which is the person from whom the world evolved
in the Vedas, AT M A N (soul or self), BRAHMAN, and
God, so as to make clear the identity of all des-
ignations for the highest. The theistic quality of
this text is developed in later Hindu theism and
in theistic or God-oriented VEDANTA.Further reading: Swami Lokeshwarananda, trans., Svet-
asvatara Upanisad (Calcutta: Ramakrishna Mission
Institute of Culture, 1994); Swami Nikhilananda, The
Upanishads: Katha, Isá, Kena, Mundaka, Sv’etasv’atara,
Prasña, Mandukya, Aitareya, Brihadaranyaka, Taittiriya,
and Chhandogya, 4 vols. (New York: Harper & Row,
1964); Patrick Olivelle, trans., The Early Upanisads
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).Siddha
Siddha ([The] Perfected) refers to a historic group
of YOGIS who achieved all of the SIDDHIS, or occult
powers, and attained liberation from the cycle of
birth and rebirth in the body (JIVANMUKTA).K 410 Shurpanakha