this world to teach and promulgate the tradition
of the Jains. Technically, no one can become com-
pletely released from karma until death; Jains use
the term Tirthankara in anticipation of the libera-
tion from karma that these venerated beings have
earned.
In each “half-era,” 24 Tirthankaras manifest.
Such events have transpired for an infinite num-
ber of eons and will do so in the future; thus,
there have been an infinite number of Tirthan-
karas, in theory. Besides, Jain cosmology posits
numerous other realms beyond our Earth where
other Tirthankaras manifest, so it is understood
that though we have no living Tirthankara here
on Earth, there is always one alive somewhere in
the universe.
In Jain temples the Tirthankara is often the
central icon in the shrine, usually depicted at
his or her moment of enlightenment and first
teaching, surrounded above and around by all
the gods, humans, and animals present to hear
the teaching. The 24 Tirthankaras of the current
half of a cosmic cycle: RISHABHA, Ajita, Sambhava,
Abhinandana, Sumati, Padmaprabha, Suparshva,
Chandraprabha, Suvidhi/Puspadanta, Shitala,
Sreyamsa, Vasupujya, Vimala, Ananta, Dharma,
Shanti, Kunthu, Ara, Malli, Munisuvrata, Nami,
Nemi, PARSHVANATH/MAHAVIRA.
DIGAMBARA and SHVETAMBARA Jains agree on
this list; however, the Shvetambara believe that
Malli was a woman, while the Digambaras do not
accept that women can achieve enlightenment or
release from karma in a female birth. Most often
the names of the Tirthankaras are followed by the
term Natha, or “Lord,” for example, Parshvanath.
The final Tirthankara of our half of a cosmic cycle,
MAHAVIRA, however, is generally not addressed
this way. In iconography, the first Tirthankara and
the last three are by far the most commonly seen.
Further reading: Jyotindra Jain and Eberhard Fischer,
Jaina Iconography, 2 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978); P.
S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1979); T. G. Kalghatgi, Tirthankara Parsva-
natha: A Study (Mysore: Dept. of Jainology and Prakrits,
University of Mysore, 1977).Tirumular (c. sixth century) Tamil Shaivite saint
Tirumular has a unique position in the Tamil
literature. He is one of the 63 orthodox Shaivite
(see SHAIVISM) saints of the Tamil pantheon, while
also considered the first of the mysterious Sittars
(SIDDHAS in Sanskrit), the antinomian, antiortho-
dox YOGIS of that tradition. Tirumular is so called
because he entered his mula (body) by the grace
of Tiru (the sacred one), the designation of SHIVA’s
bull NANDI. He says in one of his verses, “God cre-
ated me, so that I might recreate Him in Tamil.”
Tirumular is known for his sixth-century poem
Tirumanthiram, which forms the 10th book of the
Tamil Shaivite canon, the TIRUMURAI.Further reading: B. Natarajan, trans., Tirumantiram,
a Tamil Scriptural Classic by Tirumular (Madras: Sri
Ramakrishna Math, 1994); Kamil V. Zvelebil, Tamil
Literature (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975).Tirumurai
The Tirumurai is the Tamil Shaivite (see SHAIVISM)
canon. This set of sacred texts, written in Tamil,
holds a place in that tradition at least equal to
the SANSKRIT texts about SHIVA. It is a collection
of devotional hymns and stories of holy men and
women, written over the course of 600 years by
the 63 Tamil Shaivite poet-saints.
The entire 12-volume canon was assembled
between 1080 and 1100 by Nambi Antar Nambi.
Nambi began with the seven-volume TEVARAM, his
collection of hymns by the three great saints SAM-
BANTHAR, APPAR, and SUNDARAR. Nambi then added
MANIKKAVACAKAR’s poems, the Tirukkovaiyar and
TIRUVACAKAM, as the eighth book, and collected
28 hymns by nine other saints into the ninth
book. He made the Tirumanthiram of TIRUMULAR
the 10th book. The 11th book has two parts; the
first contains 40 hymns by 12 other poets, andTirumurai 449 J