Sutra and as such is attributed to Badarayana, an
ancient sage. A SUTRA is a short aphoristic line of
text; Vedanta Sutra can thus be translated as “lines
relating to the VEDANTA.” There are about 560
lines in this text.
The work was composed to resolve difficul-
ties in the interpretation of the UPANISHADS and
to refute the views of certain opposing schools.
Chapter I systematically and with great specific-
ity discusses the Upanishad passages dealing with
BRAHMAN (the universal reality) and AT M A N (the soul
or self). Chapter II is devoted to a refutation of the
other interpretations, as presented by the schools
of SAMKHYA, YOGA, NYAYA, VAISHESHIKA, MIMAMSA,
CHARVAKA, Buddhism, and JAINISM. Chapter III dis-
cusses the PRAMANAS, the valid methods of obtain-
ing knowledge (such as perception, inference, or
scripture) in order to understand the brahman and
atman. The fourth and final chapter discusses the
results of brahman realization.
The Vedanta Sutra, Upanishads, and BHAGAVAD
GITA form the traditional foundational texts for
Vedantic philosophy. As a result, Vedanta Sutra
has attracted numerous and varied commentar-
ies. SHANKARA, RAMANUJA, and MADHVA all wrote
extensive commentaries, which strongly disagree
with one another, largely because the extremely
concise style of the individual lines often admits
to varied interpretations.
Further reading: V. M. Apte, trans., Brahma-Sutra,
Shankara-Bhashya: Badarayana’s Brahma-Sutras with
Shankaracharya’s Commentary (Bombay: Popular Book
Depot, 1960); Swami Gambhirananda, trans., Brahma-
Sutra-Bhasya of Sri Sankaracarya (Calcutta: advaita
Ashrama, 1965); S. Radhakrishnan, trans., The Brahma
Sutra, the Philosophy of Spiritual Life (New York: Green-
wood Press, 1968); S. S. Raghavachar, Sri Bhashya on
the Philosophy of the Brahma-Sutra (Bangalore: Sri Lak-
shmi Hayagreeva Seva Trust, 1986).
Vedantic Center See TURYASANGITANANDA,
SWA M I.
Vedic See VEDA(S).
vegetarianism
Vegetarianism is highly valued in Indian cul-
ture. In general orthodox BRAHMINS will eat
neither meat nor eggs. Castes who desire to gain
respect and perhaps eventual advancement in
the hierarchy will adopt vegetarianism as a way
to “Sanskritize” or become more Brahminical.
Hindus who are on any spiritual quest in India
will remove meat and other things such as spices
from their diet in order to ensure spiritual purity.
Meat is considered to be tamasic (see GUNAS),
or spiritually negative, and is believed to cause
excessive desire for sexuality and a tendency
toward violence.
Most scholars agree that vegetarianism was
not originally part of the Vedic or Brahmini-
cal system, though this remains a controversial
conclusion. The solid evidence of the Vedic texts
themselves as well as authoritative DHARMA (right
conduct) texts such as the DHARMASHASTRA of
Manu, indicate quite clearly that meat, including
beef, was eaten by all sectors of Indian society
including Brahmins.
The Jains (see JAINISM) and Buddhists, how-
ever, were extremely critical of the Brahminical
animal sacrifices and of the habit of eating meat.
The Jains were most radical in this regard; Jain
monks (and to a lesser degree the laity) practiced
AHIMSA (noninjury) from as early as 900 B.C.E., as
did the BUDDHA from around 600 B.C.E.
For the Jain monks, every motion of the body
had to be calculated to minimize its effect on
invisible microscopic beings that were believed
to exist in air, water, fire, and earth. (This may
have been the first human conception of micro-
organisms.) All the more did they refrain from
slaughtering and eating large animals. Strict
vegetarianism was required for monks, and the
laity followed their example. One could never be
a Jain in India, then or now, and eat meat or eggs.
Buddhists were vegetarian in their monasteriesvegetarianism 485 J