but were allowed to eat meat received as alms.
They were less absolute, but they too discour-
aged MEAT-EATING.
The Brahminical tradition began to move in
the direction of ahimsa toward the end of the last
millennium before the Common Era. Law codes
such as the Manu Smriti or the Dharmashastra of
Manu allow Brahmins to eat the meat of sacrificial
animals, but other meat eating is discouraged.
The influence of ahimsa is clear in the argument
that ritually sacrificing an animal is not himsa, or
“killing” per se.
As time went on, and Vedic ritual began to
recede in importance in the culture, Brahmins
took on strict vegetarianism as a sign of purity.
They also followed the Jains and Buddhists in pre-
venting any needless killing of any being. While
Jainism and Buddhism remained localized or
minority traditions, Brahmin conduct was always
the model for the Hindu majority. Vegetarianism
soon became the pan-Indian ideal.
Further reading: D. N. Jha, The Myth of the Holy Cow
(London: Verso, 2002); Brian K. Smith, “Eaters, Food
and Social Hierarchy in Ancient India,” Journal of the
Academy of Religion 58, no. 2 (1990): 177–205; Francis
Zimmerman, The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats (Berke-
ley: University of California Press, 1987).
vehicles of the divinities
In the post-Vedic iconography of India, gods
and goddesses are commonly seen in associa-
tion with what is described in SANSKRIT as their
vahana (vehicle). Often they are pictured astride
an animal; at other times there is a depiction of
the animal standing alone in the foreground or
background. Vedic divinities did not have such
mounts, but mounts were created for them in later
times to make their images accord with those of
the non-Vedic gods.
The vehicle of VISHNU is the man-eagle
GARUDA; the vehicle of SHIVA is the bull NANDI;
DURGA is often depicted astride a lion or tiger;
SARASVATI is seen in association with a swan or
peacock; KARTTIKEYA, the younger son of Shiva
and PARVATI, has a peacock vehicle; GANESHA, the
elephant-headed divinity, is seen in association
with the lowly rat. LAKSHMI is unique in having
a lotus that she is always shown seated upon,
which serves as her vehicle.
There are, however, many prominent divini-
ties who do not have iconographic vehicles. These
include RAMA and SITA, PARVATI and KRISHNA.
Among the Jains the TIRTHANKARAS (perfected
beings) were usually depicted in association with
particular animals, perhaps in imitation of the
Hindu notion. However, since the Jain tradition is
so old, it is quite possible that the practice origi-
nated with them.Further reading: Cornelia Dimitt and J. A. B. van
Buitenen, eds. and trans., Classical Hindu Mythology:
A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple
University Press, 1978); Margaret Stutley, An Illustrated
Dictionary of Hindu Iconography (Boston: Routledge &
Kegan Paul, 1985).Videha
Videha was an important region or country of
ancient India, located in what is now north-
ern Bihar state. With its capital Mithila it was
mentioned in both the MAHABHARATA and the
RAMAYANA. King Janaka of Videha was famous
for his daughter SITA, who became Lord RAMA’s
wife, and for reaching a perfected state through
action alone, as recounted in the BHAGAVAD GITA.
The king is also mentioned in the UPANISHADS as
a knower of BRAHMAN. Videha is also mentioned
in the Buddhist Jataka stories and the Majjhima
Nikaya; the Buddha traveled there. MAHAVIRA,
the great Jain TIRTHANKARA (perfected being), was
born in this country.Further reading: Yogendra Mishra, History of Videha:
From the Earliest Times to the Foundation of the Gupta
Empire, A.D. 319 (Patna: Janaki Prakashan, 1981).K 486 vehicles of the divinities