vidya
Vidya (knowledge) from the SANSKRIT root “to
know” is an important philosophical term in Hindu
tradition. Initially it connoted the knowledge of
the Vedic MANTRAS and ritual, and it bestowed great
power. When the UPANISHADS concluded that Vedic
rituals alone could not help break the cycle of birth
and rebirth, Vedic knowledge began to be called
the “lower knowledge” (apara vidya) while the
Upanishadic knowledge was called the higher or
liberating knowledge (para vidya). Buddhism also
used the term to refer to knowledge of the path
that breaks the cycle of birth and rebirth.
Further reading: Thomas Hopkins, The Hindu Religious
Tradition (Encino, Calif.: Dickenson, 1971); Klaus K.
Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism (Albany: State Uni-
versity of New York Press, 1994).
Vidyaranya (c. 1450 C.E.) Vedantic philosopher
Vidyaranya was a well-known philosopher in the
tradition of SHANKARA. He is thought to be the
brother of Sayana; Sayana is the commentator on
the VEDAS. Vidyaranya composed several texts.
The Sarvadarshanasangraha is a discussion of
different philosophical views. The Panchapadika-
vivarana is considered an excellent and thorough
summary of the non-dualist philosophical per-
spective; Vivarnaprameyasangraha explores the
same theme in a more scholarly fashion.
Vidyarana’s Jivanmuktiviveka discusses those
beings who have already been liberated from the
cycle of birth and rebirth but remain in embodied
existence. Finally, Panchadashi is a popular com-
pendium in verse of Vedantic thought, known for
its clarity and accessibility. Here he outlines his
own understanding of the nature of the ultimate
brahman, describing the maya or illusory world
appearance as being in a sense a power of the
BRAHMAN. Brahman is the underlying pure reality,
while all names and forms are the false discolor-
ation over the pure whiteness, as it were, of the
ultimate reality.
Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian Phi-
losophy, 5 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); T. M.
P. Mahadevan, The Philosophy of Advaita, with Special
Reference to Bharatitirtha-Vidyaranya (London: Luzac,
1938); Swami Tejomayananda, Pancadasi of Svami
Vidyaranya, chaps. 5, 10, and 15 (Mumbai: Central
Chinmaya Mission Trust, 1999).Vijayadashami See NAVARATRI.
Vijayanagara (1336–1630)
Vijayanagara, the “City of Victory,” was a fortress
city founded by an alliance of kings as a bulwark
against the Muslims in the south of India. Its
vast ruins can still be seen at the site of Hampi in
Karnataka.
The city was the capital of a sprawling empire
that controlled almost all of India south of the
Krishna and the Tungabhadra Rivers at its height
under King Krishnadevaraya. The empire took the
name of the city, the Vijayanagara empire.
Vijayanagara played a key role in Hindu history,
by successfully fending off many Muslim invasions
and preserving and promoting Hindu culture for
nearly 300 years, at a time when the rest of India
was suffering complete Muslim domination. Two
princes, Harihara and Bukka, created the kingdom
in 1336. Harihara I (1336–57) planned and built
the great new city of Vijayanagara, which became
the capital of the empire in 1343. In 1346, the
Hoysalas, the last remaining South Indian rivals to
the Vijayanagara kingdom, were defeated.
The city covered 20 square miles and had
seven concentric lines of fortifications. It had at
its height a population of 500,000 people. It was
an international city with wide trade ties, which
helped finance beautifully carved and embellished
buildings. The culture saw a flowering of South
Indian civilization with support for all the sects
of Hinduism, including Vaishnavite, Shaivite, and
the GODDESS, and for the heterodox Jains as well
(see JAINISM).Vijayanagara 487 J