Further reading: John Dowson, A Classical Diction-
ary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, His-
tory, and Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book
Depot, 1974); Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic Mythology
2 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); Kusum
P. Merh, Yama, the Glorious Lord of the Other World
(New Delhi: D. K. Printworld, 1996); W. J. Wilkins,
Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta:
Rupa, 1973).
yama
The eightfold path (ASHTANGA) of Patanjali’s yoga
stresses observance of the “five yamas” or moral
restraints: AHIMSA, avoiding causing pain or injury
to any creature; satya, speaking the truth; asteya,
not stealing; BRAHMACHARYA, sexual abstinence;
and aparigraha, not being acquisitive. All of these
restraints are developed to ever higher levels as
YOGA progresses, so that “speaking the truth”
becomes a struggle to avoid even the desire to lie.
Though some say that these constrants are not
part of yoga per se, in fact a focus on these con-
straints is a common yogic practice. Furthermore,
the other branches or elements of the eightfold
path such as “concentration” (dharana) are seen
as enhancing and perfecting the yamas.
Further reading: Swami Hariharananda Aranya, Yoga
Philosophy of Patanjali (Albany: State University of New
York Press, 1983); M. N. Dvivedi, trans., The Yoga-
Sutras of Patanjali: Sanskrit Text and English Translation
Together, with an Introduction and an Appendix, and Notes
on Each Sutra Based upon Several Authentic Commentar-
ies (Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1980); Ganganatha Jha, trans.,
The Yoga-Darshana, Comprising the Sutras of Patan-
jali—with the Bhasya of Vyasa (Madras: Theosophical
Publishing House, 1934).
Yamuna (Jumna) River
The Yamuna River flows past Delhi and past the
sacred sites of Mathura and BRINDAVAN and meets
the GANGES at ALLAHABAD (Prayag). The deity
Yamuna is seen as a GODDESS mounted on a tortoise,
carrying a blue lotus, a fly whisk, and a water pot.
(A beautiful sandstone statue of her is found at
Aihole in Karnataka, dating from the seventh cen-
tury.) Sometimes Yamuna is understood to be the
sister of the god of death, YAMA. One of the greatest
Indian festivals, the KUMBHA MELA, is celebrated at
the conjunction of the Yamuna and the Ganges.Further reading: David L. Haberman, River of Love
in an Age of Pollution: The Yamuna River of Northern
India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006);
Sudhakar Pandey, Ganga and Yamuna in Indian Art and
Literature (Chandigarh: Indra Prakashan, 1984).yantra
A yantra is a meditative and ritual drawing or
design used particularly in Indian TANTRIC YOGA.
It is almost always drawn with colored powder on
the floor or ground in a ritual process. It it usually
a geometric pattern, with flowers or flower petals.
Once it is completed, a MEDITATION is performed,
focusing on the center of the yantra, which is
most often the BINDU, a condensed point of con-
sciousness out of which the universe is seen to
evolve.
The yantra is usually seen as the subtle form of
the divinity; when one creates a yantra one mani-
fests an alternative form of the totality of the divin-
ity for more focused ritual and worship. In ritual
and meditation, one moves outward from the bindu
to the other aspects and junctures of the design.
Or, one may begin at the outer edge of the design
and work inward toward the bindu. The yantra may
in certain circumstances be worshipped in and of
itself and in other circumstances will form a part of
a much larger ritual. As with most tantric rituals,
these are rarely performed in public.
Sometimes yantras are referred to as mandalas.
The SRI YANTRA is sometimes called Sri Chakra.
Buddhism and JAINISM also use yantras, though
in Buddhism they will generally be referred to as
mandalas.yantra 509 J