Potter, Presuppositions of India’s Philosophies (Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963).
ap (also jala) See ELEMENTS, FIVE.
Apabhramsha
Sanskrit linguists use the term Apabramsha, “that
which is badly fallen,” to refer to the languages
spoken in North India between approximately
600 and 1200 C.E. These languages developed
from certain of the earlier Prakrits (themselves
evolutes of SANSKRIT), and evolved to become
the various modern languages of North India.
There are important extant Apabramsha texts,
particularly among the Jains. Examples of Jain
text are the Paumacariu of Svayambhu and the
Mahapurana of Pushpadanta. Some later Buddhist
sages also composed in this language; some of
their texts are still extant.
Further reading: H. C. Bhayani, Apabhramsa Language
and Literature: A Short Introduction (Delhi: B. L. Institute
of Indology, 1989); ———, Indological Studies: Literary
and Performing Arts, Prakrit and Apabhramsa Studies
(Ahmedabad: Parshva, 1998); Moriz Winternitz, History
of Indian Literature (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1967).
apana See PRANA.
Appar (Tirunavakkarasu) (c. 570–670 C.E.)
Tamil Shaivite poet and saint
APPAR was one of the three most prominent Tamil
Shaivite saints (see SHAIVISM, NAYANARS), whose
hymns appear in the central liturgical and literary
text of the the Tamil Shaivites, the TEVARAM.
Appar was born under the name Marunaikkiyar
to a Vellala (agricultural class) family in Tiruvamur.
His family were Shaivite but he converted to JAIN-
ISM as a youth, taking on the name Dharmasena.
Afflicted by a painful abdominal disease, the young
Jain monk turned to his sister, a Shaivite, for help.
At her request he put his faith in Shiva, and was
miraculously cured. He immediately converted
back to the faith of his birth. He began to sing
passionate hymns to Lord Shiva, which angered
his former Jain associates. It was said that he was
persecuted and even tortured by the angry Jains but
by the grace of Shiva was unharmed.
Appar is said to have led the Pallava king, who
had also converted to Jainism, back to Shiva. He
was recognized as a saint and spent his time travel-
ing from one shrine to the next singing hymns at
each sacred location. Iconographically, Appar is
often showing holding a hoe, for he was known
for clearing the temple grounds of weeds and grass
in service to Lord Shiva. His beautiful lyrics and
speech earned him the name Tirunavakkarasu, “He
who is the king of eloquence.” It is said that he was
first called Appar (my father) by his younger con-
temporary SAMBANTHAR, who addressed him thus.Further reading: Appar: A Sketch of His Life and Teach-
ings (Madras: G. A. Natesa, n.d.); Ratna Ma Navarat-
nam, The Vision of Periyapuranam (Bombay: Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, 1987); Indira Viswanathan Peterson,
Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints (Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989); J. M. Nallas-
wami Pillai, trans., Periyapuranam (the Lives of the Saiva
Saints) (Madras: Rajan, 1955); T. N. Ramachandran,
trans., St. Sekkizhar’s Periya Puranam (Thanjavur: Tamil
University, 1990); Dorai Rangaswamy, The Religion and
Philosophy of Tevaram (Madras: University of Madras,
1958–59); G. G. Vanmikanathan, Appar (New Delhi:
Sahitya Akademi, 1983); ———, Periyapuranam, a
Tamil Classic on the Great Saiva Saints of South India
by Sekkizhar (Madras: Shri Ramakrishna Math, 1985);
R. Vijayalakshmy, An Introduction to Religion and Phi-
losophy—Tevaram and Tivviyappirapantam (Chennai:
International Institute of Tamil Studies, 2001).apsaras
The apsaras are celestial nymphs. These beautiful
young women appear first in the Vedic literatureapsaras 41 J