280 Notes
almost unanimous agreement among scholars that the document is authentic and
that it included the Jews. For the traditions regarding the Banu Qurayza, see M. J.
Kister, “The Massacre of the Banu Qurayza: A Reexamination of a Tradition,” in
Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (1986), and Hodgson (1974), p. 191. Kister puts
the number at about four hundred. Ahmad estimates the number of Jews remaining
in Medina to have been between 24,000 and 28,000. For the Jewish perspective see
H. Graetz, History of the Jews, vol. 3 (1894); Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Reli-
gious History of the Jews, vol. 3 (1964); and Francesco Gabrieli, Muhammad and the
Conquests of Islam (1968): Gabrieli’s quote regarding Badr is on page 68.
For Arab responses to the massacre of Banu Qurayza, see Ahmad (1976), pp.
76–94, and W. N. Arafat, “New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of
Medina,” in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1976). Tor Andrae’s quote is from
Mohammad: The Man and His Faith (1935), pp. 155–56.
For more objective studies on the massacre, see Karen Armstrong, Muhammad
(1993), and Norman A. Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands (1979). As the allies of the
Qurayza, some members of the Aws asked Muhammad for leniency. It was for this
reason that he chose one of their number as Hakam. However, after Sa‘d’s decision
was made, there were no objections from the Aws, or from anyone else for that
matter.
The story of the mosque demolished by Umar in Damascus is recounted in
J. L. Porter, Five Years in Damascus: With Travels and Researches in Palmyra, Lebanon,
the Giant Cities of Bashan, and the Hauran (1855). Muhammad’s instructions to his
armies are discussed in Ignaz Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, pp.
33–36. Maria Menocal’s excellent book The Ornament of the World (2002) describes
the culture of religious tolerance founded by the Umayyads in medieval Spain. S. D.
Goiten provides a more academic perspective on Jews under Muslim rule in Jews
and Arabs (1970); his quotation is from page 63. Muhammad’s quotation regarding
the protection of Jews and Christians is taken from The Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam,
p. 17. Peters’s quote is from Muhammad, p. 203 (original italics); Watt’s from
Muhammad at Medina (1956), 195.
H. G. Reissener’s views on the Jews of Medina are best described in “The
Ummi Prophet and the Banu Israil,” in The Muslim World (1949), while D. S. Mar-
goliouth’s views are discussed in his The Relations Between Arabs and Israelites Prior to
the Rise of Islam (1924). For the Arabian Jews’ knowledge of the Bible, see footnote
87 in S. W. Baron (1964), p. 261. Gordon Newby outlines the economic dominance
of the Jewish clans in Yathrib in A History of the Jews in Arabia (1988), pp. 75–79 and
84–85. For a treatment of the relationship between Muhammad and the Jewish
clans of Medina, see Hannah Rahman’s excellent essay “The Conflicts Between the
Prophet and the Opposition in Medina,” in Der Islam (1985); also Moshe Gil, “The
Medinan Opposition to the Prophet,” in Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (1987),
as well as his “Origin of the Jews of Yathrib,” in Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
(1984). The issue of archeology and Jewish identity is examined by Jonathan L.
Reed in his Archeology and the Galilean Jesus (2000).
For a history of Ibn Sayyad, see David J. Halperin, “The Ibn Sayyad Traditions
and the Legend of al-Dajjal,” in Journal of the American Oriental Society (1976). Even
though Ibn Sayyad may have accepted Muhammad’s prophetic mission, Muham-
mad seems to have denied Ibn Sayyad’s. In fact, Halperin shows how later Islamic
tradition transformed Ibn Sayyad into an Antichrist figure. For the connection
between Jesus and Muhammad, see Neal Robinson, Christ in Islam and Christianity
(1991).