282 Notes
the Quran that have survived, see Arthur Jeffery, “A Variant Text of the Fatiha,” in
Muslim World (1939). Once again, I am indebted in these pages to Wilferd
Madelung’s analysis of Uthman’s assassination in The Succession to Muhammad, espe-
cially pages 78–140.
There are many books on the life and Caliphate of Ali. Particularly helpful to
this section was Momen’s An Introduction to Shi‘i Islam, as well as S. Husain M. Jafri,
The Origins and Early Development of Shi‘a Islam (1979). See also Mohamad Jawad
Chirri, The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad (1982). For more on the doctrine and
history of the Kharijites, see Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic
Thought, pp. 9–37. Ali’s quote is from A Selection from “Nahjul Balagha,” translated
by Ali A. Behzadnia and Salwa Denny, p. 7. Ali was not the first to be called Imam;
all four Caliphs shared that title, though with Ali, the title of Imam emphasizes his
special relationship to the Prophet.
Sir Thomas W. Arnold’s quote is from The Caliphate (1966), p. 10. For various
views on the relationship between religion and politics in Islam, see Abu-l Ala
(Mawlana) Mawdudi’s Nationalism and India (1947), Abd ar-Raziq’s previously cited
Islam and the Bases of Power, Sayyid Qutb’s Social Justice in Islam (1953), and Ruhollah
Khomeini’s Islamic Government (1979).
- This Religion Is a Science
There are numerous accounts of the inquisition of Ahmad ibn Hanbal before al-
Mu’tasim, most of which are compiled and brilliantly analyzed by Nimrod Hurvitz
in The Formation of Hanbalism: Piety into Power (2002). For biographies of both Ibn
Hanbal and al-Ma’mun, see Michael Cooperson, Classical Arabic Biography: The
Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of al-Ma’mun (2000). I draw my physical description of
Ibn Hanbal, as well as the deathbed quote of al-Ma’mun, from Cooperson’s text. For
more on the impact of the Inquisition, see Jonathan Berkey (2003), pp. 124–29, and
Richard Bulliet, Islam: The View from the Edge (1994), p. 115–27. The issue is also
treated quite well by Patricia Crone in her newest work, God’s Rule: Government and
Islam (2004). Malik ibn Anas is quoted in Mernissi, p. 59.
Wilfred Cantwell Smith’s description of Islamic orthodoxy is from his Islam in
Modern History (1957), p. 20. For general treatments of the Five Pillars, see
Mohamed A. Abu Ridah, “Monotheism in Islam: Interpretations and Social Mani-
festations,” in The Concept of Monotheism in Islam and Christianity, edited by Hans
Kochler (1982) and John Renard, Seven Doors to Islam (1996).
There is evidence (apart from the apocryphal story of Muhammad’s ascension
to heaven, when he negotiates the number of salats down from fifty to five) that the
early tradition prescribed only three salats a day. The Quran says “Hold the salat at
the two ends of the day as well as at the ends of the night” (11:114). Eventually, two
more salats must have been added, though no one is certain why or when. Ibn
Jubayr’s quote about Mecca and the Hajj is taken from his Voyages (1949–51). Mal-
colm X’s quote is from The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965).
Al-Ghazali’s The Ninety-nine Beautiful Names of God has been translated into
English by David B. Burrell and Nazih Daher (1970), while his Revival of the Reli-
gious Sciences has been translated into English by Nabih Amin Faris as The Founda-
tions of the Articles of Faith (1963). Ali Shariati’s reflections on tawhid can be found in
his On the Sociology of Islam (1979).
The debate between the Traditionalists and the Rationalists is wonderfully illu-
minated in Binyamin Abrahamov’s Islamic Theology: Traditionalism and Rationalism
(1998). I also recommend the essays in Religious Schools and Sects in Medieval Islam,