Arab purity. See Wahhabism
Arafat, W. N., 92–93
Aristotle, 151
Armstrong, Karen, 93
army, Islamic, 123, 175
Arnold, Thomas, 136
asceticism, 199, 200
ash-Shadhili, Muhammad, 201, 232
ash-Shafii, Muhammad, 165
Ash‘arite School, 153–55, 205. See also Tra-
ditionalists
Ashura (holy day), 244
Ataturk, Kemal, 234
Attar, Farid ad-Din, 206–8, 209, 211, 212,
213
Averroës, 153
Avicenna, 155
Aws tribe, 55, 56–57, 92, 116
ayatollahs, 185. See also specific person
Azhar University, 169, 232, 235
Aziz, Shah Abdul, 179
Azzam, Abdullah Yusuf, 86–87
Badr, battle at, 56, 76, 78, 83–84, 87–88, 89
Baghdad, 136–37, 142, 204
Bahadur Shah II, 222, 224
Bahira (Christian monk), 20–21
Bamyeh, Mohammed, 100
Baqura, 12
Bar Kochba, Simon, 9
baraka, 159–60, 210
Baron, S. W., 92, 96
Basra, 20–21, 68, 126, 127, 128, 130
Battle of Siffin, 134–35
Battle of the Camel, 130–31, 134, 177
Battle of the Trench, 91–92, 104
Battle of Uhud, 90, 91–92
Bedouins, 5, 29–32, 49, 54, 62, 91, 116, 147
believers: intention of, 145, 146
Bell, Richard, 46
Berkey, Jonathan, 164
Bhutto, Benazir, 257
Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 256–57
bin Laden, Osama, 86–87, 248, 259–60
Black Stone, 9–10
“blood money,” 30
Boroujerdi, Ayatollah, 191–92
Buddhism, 80, 199, 213, 217
Bulliet, Richard, 28, 143
Burckhardt, Titus, 208–9
Byzantine Empire, 10, 29, 67, 79–80, 94,
101, 108, 131, 175
Caetani, Leone, 127
calendar, Islamic, 52
Index 297Caliphate: as absolute monarchy, 114; and
Ali’s refusal of title of Caliph, 130; and
approvals of Caliphs, 122; and Battle of
the Camel, 131; and Caliph as king,
136; as civil institution, 114; decline
and demise of, 137–38, 234, 244–45;
and divine sanction of al-Ma’mum,
142–43; first, 112–13; and Hasan-
Mu‘awiyah conflict, 174; and Imams,
181; nature and functions of, 113, 117,
126, 130–34, 136, 138–39, 142–43,
233; and profession of faith, 152; and
prophethood, 123; restoration of, 138,
170; and revolt against Uthman,
126–29; and Riddah Wars, 119; and
Rightly Guided Ones, 136, 138, 258,
265; Shaykhs compared with, 113; and
successors to Muhammad, 113, 114,
115–20, 123–25, 126–39; and Ulama,
143; and Umar’s conversion, 155–56;
and Ummah, 131–32, 136, 143; and
Wahhabism, 244; and Yazid-Husayn
conflict, 176–77; zakat during, 147. See
also specific Caliph or Caliphate
calligraphy, 159, 217
capital punishment, 119
caravans, 20–22, 23, 82–83, 89
celibacy, 201
Central Asia, 165–66, 199, 202, 216
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 188,
252, 259, 260
charity, 33–34, 58, 147, 150
Chisti Order, 217–18
Christianity: Alexandrian, 11; Antiochian,
11; Arian, 11; Byzantine, 94; disappear-
ance in Islamic lands of, 95; evolution
of, 248; Gnostic, 11; historical infor-
mation about, 22; in Holy Roman
Empire, 11, 80; influence on Muham-
mad of, 17–18, 44; internal conflict
within, 115, 248; and Judaism, 183;
and Ka‘ba, 11–12; lamentation in, 178;
missionary activity of, 10, 95, 115,
223–28, 236; Modalist, 11; Mono-
physite, 11, 12; Montanist, 11; and
Muhammad’s marriages, 64; Muham-
mad’s views about, 94, 98–99, 100,
101–2, 103–4, 262; mystics in, 208;
Nestorian, 11; as “orthodoxic” reli-
gion, 144; and paganism, 10–12, 13,
14; and “People of the Book,” 100;
persecution of, 94; in pre-Islamic Ara-
bia, 10–12, 13, 14, 17–18, 22, 40; pro-
tection taxes for, 94–95, 147; and
Quran as revealed scripture, 99; reform