Union (USSR). Between the years 1980 and 1990,
male premature mortality was relatively stable in all
regions of the USSR, and two to three times higher
than in EU nations, or average. After the collapse of
the USSR, CVD mortality began to rise dramatically
in all the new independent states within the territory of
the former USSR. In 1994 the male CVD mortality in
Russia and Latvia was more than five times higher
than the EU average. Women in these countries have
been affected to almost the same degree as men, and
the CVD mortality trends were strongest among
young adults and middle-aged individuals. Cancer
mortality was stable during this period, however. In
1994 the life expectancy of Russian men was almost
twenty years less than that of men in Japan and some
European countries. After 1994, however, there was a
sudden drop in mortality both in males and females,
followed by a further increase.OriginsLifestyle and Nutrition
Communist period (1970–1989). The socioeco-
nomic situation in the democratic part of Europe and
in the United States after World War II was substan-
tially different than that in the Soviet bloc. The United
States and the European democratic states were pros-
perous countries with effective economies and a rich
variety of all kinds of foods. The communist states,
however, had ineffective centralized economies and
lower standards of living. The amount of various
foods, especially foods of animal origin, was almostalways insufficient in the USSR and the majority of its
satellite countries. Data on food consumption com-
piled by the Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) confirm that meat consumption was, between
1961 and 1990, substantially lower in the USSR,
Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria than in Western
Europe or the United States. Similarly, the consump-
tion of milk and butter in Bulgaria, Hungary, and
Romania was significantly lower in comparison with
Western and Northern Europe.
The increase of CVD mortality within the Soviet
bloc seems to be only partially associated with a high
prevalence of traditional risk factors. Efforts to apply
the experience gained from successful preventive proj-
ects in Finland or the United States without analyzing
the specificity of risk factors in this region, could lead
to an incorrect formulation of priorities when deter-
mining preventive measures. The contribution of
physical activity remains an open issue, but due to
technical backwardness (lower number of cars, lower
mechanization, etc.), the physical activity of people
working in industry, agriculture, and services was gen-
erally higher in Eastern Europe than in the West.
Some authors believe that economic conditions
were the principal determinant of the gap in health status
between the East and West. The close relationship
between the gross national product per capita and life
expectancy is well known, but the inhabitants of Central
Europe were less healthy than their wealth predicted.
The dramatic changes that occurred after the onset of
communism created a toxic psychosocial environment.
A loss of personal perspectives, chronic stress, tension,
anger, hostility, social isolation, frustration, hopeless-
ness, and apathy led to a lowered interest in health and
to a very high incidence of alcoholism and suicide. Peo-
ple living for many decades in the informationally pol-
lutedenvironmentrejectedevenusefulhealtheducation.SOURCE: World Health OrganizationMale and female life expectancy at birth in Europe,
2004Country Males Females
Russian Federation 59 72
Ukraine 62 73
Hungary 79 83
Romania 68 76
Bulgaria 69 76
Poland 71 79
Slovakia 70 78
Czech Republic 73 79
Portugal 74 81
Spain 77 83
United Kingdom 76 81
Germany 76 82
Italy 78 84
Sweden 78 83
Switzerland 78 83
France 76 83(Illustration by GGS Information Services/Thomson Gale.)KEY TERMS
Antioxidant—Substance that prevents oxidation, a
damaging reaction with oxygen.
Free radical—Highly reactive molecular fragment,
which can damage cells.
Hypercholesterolemia—High levels of cholesterol
in the blood.
Hypertension—High blood pressure.
Plasma—The fluid portion of the blood, distinct
from the cellular portion.
Central European and Russian diet