dried pumpkin blossoms. Native Americans in Cali-
fornia added lemonade berries to water to make a
pleasantly sour drink.
Sacred and Ceremonial Foods. Sacred foods
included bear, organ meats, andblood soup.The Horns
Society, a militant group of the Blackfoot Nation, used
pemmican, made with berries, for its sacred communion
meal. Boiled buffalo tongue was a delicacy and was
served as the food of communion at the Sun Dance, a
Lakota and Plains Indian courtship dance that also
celebrated the renewal of spiritual life. Blood soup,
made from a mixture of blood and corn flour cooked
in broth, was used as a sacred meal during the nighttime
Holy Smoke ceremony of the Sioux, a celebration of
Mother Earth that involved the use of the ‘‘peace
pipe.’’ Wolves and coyotes were the only animals that
were not hunted for food, because they were regarded as
teachers or pathfinders and held as sacred by all tribes.
At marriage ceremonies, the bride and groom
exchanged food instead of rings. The groom brought
venison or some other meat to indicate his intention to
provide for the household. The bride provided corn or
bean bread to symbolize her willingness to care for and
provide nourishment for her household.DescriptionCurrent Food Practices
Native American diets and food practices have
possibly changed more than any other ethnic group
in the United States. Although the current diet of
Native Americans may vary by tribe, and by personal
traits such as age (e.g., young versus old), it closely
resembles that of the U.S. white population. Their
diet, however, is poorer in quality than that of the
general U.S. population. A recent study found that
only 10% of Native Americans have a healthful diet,
while 90% have a poor quality that needs improve-
ment. The majority of Native Americans have diets
that are too high in fat (62%). Only 21% eat therecommended amount of fruit on any given day,
while 34% eat the recommended amount of vegeta-
bles, 24% eat the recommended amount of grains, and
27% consume the recommended amount of dairy
products. Native Americans are also four times more
likely to report not having enough to eat than other
U.S. households.Risks
Diet-Related Health Issues
Heart disease is the leading cause of death among
Native Americans. Risk factors, such as high blood
pressure, cigarette smoking, high blood cholesterol,
obesity, and diabetes, are health conditions that
increase a person’s chance for having heart disease.
The more risk factors a person has, the greater chance
a person may have for developing heart disease. Sixty-
four percent of Native American men and 61% of
women have one or more of these risk factors.
Diabetes. Type II diabetes is one of the most
serious health problems for Native Americans in the
United States. It is estimated that 12.3% of Native
Americans over nineteen years of age have type II
diabetes, compared to about 6% of the general U.S.
population—a statistic that has caused health experts
to say diabetes has reached widespread proportions.
On average, Native Americans are 2.8 times more
likely to be diagnosed with diabetes than whites of a
similar age. Diabetes is a major cause of health prob-
lems and deaths in most Native American popula-
tions. Diabetes rates for Native Americans vary by
tribal group.
Obesity. Obesity is a major risk factor for both
type II diabetes and heart disease. On average, 30% of
all adult Native Americans are obese. Both males and
females are consistently more overweight and obese
than the total U.S. population. Among the Pima of
Arizona and Mexico, for example, 95% of those with
diabetes are also overweight. In addition to the
increase in obesity among adults, obesity in children
has also become a serious health problem. For both
adults and children, the increasingly high rates of
obesity have been associated with ahigh-fat dietand
decreased levels of physical activity.Resources
BOOKS
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2000). ‘‘Prev-
alence of Selected Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors
by Sociodemographic Characteristics among American
Indians and Alaska Natives.’’Morbidity and Mortality
Weekly Report.KEY TERMS
Cholesterol—Multi-ringed molecule found in ani-
mal cell membranes; a type of lipid
Diabetes—Inability to regulate level of sugar in the
blood
Type II diabetes—Inability to regulate the level of
sugar in the blood due to a reduction in the number
of insulin receptors on the body’s cellsNative American diet