●the vertical nature of patron–client relations undermines horizontal soli-
darities, especially of clients;
●and the relationship is based on strong inequality and power difference.
(Eisenstadt and Roniger, 1981, pp. 276–7)
Political and economic changes, particularly the development of the state
and the spread of capitalism have fundamentally altered the nature of
patronage. Patron–client relations increasingly take the form of brokerage
and mediation between clients in their dealings with government and the
market (Powell, 1970; Lemarchand, 1981; Kurer, 1997).
Clientelism has become a key component of the electoral process in
many Third World countries. Political parties are compelled to recruit from
among local patrons and brokers in order to secure the political support
of their clients. The links between leaders and followers in party factions are
therefore highly personalized. Special interests pursue their objectives
through such links with the political authorities. Party leaders offer support
and protection to those who accept and support their leadership. Identity
with a leader will cut across conflicting interests, so that the leaders of fac-
tions have to mediate between the groups who support them. In India, for
example, political parties and notably Congress have had to incorporate
many different kinds of loyalty – those based on caste, landlord–tenant
relations, language, tribe and religion.
Factionalism leads to a segmentary form of party politics. The internal
structures of factions are very much alike and political relations within them
are always transactional, instrumental and dependent. Factionalism is stim-
ulated by the rewards which are accessible to those in political office. Class
interests and conflicts are overlaid by the common interest of patron and
client. Factional conflict is about obtaining a broader basis of followers.
But the outcome of conflict does not change the social structure.
If a leader fails to mediate successfully between different economic inter-
ests within his own faction it may split. If the split runs the length of the
party, factional conflict may lead to a new party being formed. The conflicts
between factions are not ideological. They are conflicts over resources, over
influence at key points in the decision-making structure of party and govern-
ment, and over the ability to gain enough followers to win office so that
patronage can be extended and the size and power of the faction can be
increased. Success breeds success in a system of patronage. Leaders who
win office can be expected to use their powers of patronage to enlarge their
faction, drawing others into their sphere of influence. Leaders can then seek
higher office, greater patronage and an enlarged following. Factional politics
154 Understanding Third World Politics