essentially a matter of how we perceive people with whom we come into
contact, whether in the family, wider social organizations, territorial com-
munities, or occupations.
Parsons saw traditional society as characterized by particularism
whereas modern society is characterized by universalism. A particularistic
judgement of or response to a fellow member of society applies special val-
ues because of a unique relationship between the people involved. Members
of a kinship group or family will judge each other according to criteria
applicable to that group relationship alone. When one only has values that
can be utilized in the context of unique social relations a society is at the tra-
ditional end of the continuum. When judgements can be made on universal
criteria, regardless of other dimensions of social relationships, society is at
the modern end. When there are standards which can be applied to any indi-
vidual, regardless of their position in society, universalism is said to exist.
Criteria of performance that are defined independently of the status of those
being evaluated constitute a pure form of universalism.
Parsons then contrasts ascribed statuswithachieved status. The former
implies the existence of inherent qualities associated with the specific indi-
viduals concerned. For example, in a society which respects the wisdom of
its older members, as soon as one becomes an elder that wisdom is assumed
to exist by definition. It is not appropriate to apply independent tests of
competence. Achieved status depends upon a capacity to satisfy independ-
ent and abstract criteria that are defined independently of the other qualities
of the individual concerned. When status is inherent in the person, society is
traditional. Where status is aquired by the achievement of abstract qualities
defined in terms of objective criteria, such as educational qualifications,
society is modern. Ascriptive political office would be represented by an
inherited position whereas achievement would be exemplified by a bureau-
crat recruited on the basis of acquired characteristics defined as necessary
for particular tasks to be performed.
A third pair of cultural patterns contrasts affectivitywithneutraliy.
‘Affectivity’ refers to emotional attachments between people. Neutral
attachments are based on instrumentality and objectives external to personal
relationships.
Finallydiffusenessis contrasted with specificity. Diffuse relations refer to
the complex web of interconnections that link people together involving
many roles and aspects of their lives. Here judgements can only be made
about a total person. Their different roles cannot be separated for purposes
of evaluation and the definition of social relationships. When society is
formed on the basis of specificity it is possible to distinguish the different
48 Understanding Third World Politics