be continuity from pre-modern forms of politics in which religious and
political authority and processes were undifferentiated, contemporary forms
of political religion are formed by the impact of political and economic
modernization (Haynes, 1993). Haynes claims that political religiosity ‘is
not a “return” to religion, but the latest example of a periodic utilisation –
stimulated by perceived crisis – of religion to help pursue secular goals’
(Haynes, 1999, p. 245). However, there seems sufficient evidence of politi-
cal religion being a reversion to and revival of pre-modern traditions, values
and practices, and a rejection of modernity, for the issue to at least remain
unresolved.
In this context modernization theory appears élitist and in contrast to the
experience of the masses. Modernization theory depicts religion as a less real,
evolved and rational alternative to politics, doomed to secularization, when
in the otherwise contrasting cultures of Latin America, the Middle East, cen-
tral and southern Africa, and South East Asia, religion remains a source of
popular mobilization, alternative notions of legitimacy, resistance and even
insurrection. It has come to fill an ideological vacuum. It can be revolutionary
or reactionary (or evolve from one to the other). Where religion is identified
with the state it tends to be a conservative force (as in Saudi Arabia) but where
it is distanced from politics it tends to be anti-establishment, as in Central and
South America (Kamrava, 1993, pp. 148–9).
Liberation theology in Latin America has challenged the authority pat-
terns of the Catholic Church as well as political regimes in its clerical pop-
ulism, its ideology of democratization and equality, its stimulation of
collective organization and its recognition of the poor as a valid source of
religious values and action. Its fusion of religion, social analysis (drawing
inspiration from Marxism) and political activism has implications for the
secular presuppositions of modernization theory in that religious values are
not secondary to social and political reform. Religion is not merely being
used as a convenient instrument of political mobilization and solidarity. It
represents a new spirituality as well as a new awareness of class, conflict,
exploitation – the spirituality of the exploited poor (Levine, 1986, 1988).
Secularization of the state by technocratic élites in some middle eastern
countries has magnified the ideological significance of Islam, especially for
the poor and other excluded classes. As well as spiritual guidance it has pro-
vided a political framework and an alternative to the materialism and
immorality associated with modernization and secularism (Kedourie, 1992;
Omid, 1992). But in so doing it shows how politics based on religion com-
bines traditional and modern elements. For example, millenarianism and
commitment to an Islamic order (as in Iran) is accompanied by nationalism
62 Understanding Third World Politics