on the part of the clergy (Ram, 1997). Fundamentalist opposition in Saudi
Arabia combines Islamic and modern Western concepts such as human
rights and administrative probity (Kostiner, 1997). The appeal of religious
movements such as the Iranian Shi’ites is related to secular concerns such
as growing social inequality, political repression, corruption, foreign
exploitation and cultural division (Banuazizi, 1987). Some interpretations
of Islam find no difficulty in incorporating capitalism with the idea of the
state as the realization of divine sovereignty and the source of law as tran-
scendental (Judy, 1998).
Dichotomous models
Modernization theory provided ideal types or models of traditional and
modern society to show along which dimensions they could be said to
differ. But these tell very little about the dynamics of transition from one
cultural state to another (Larrain, 1989, pp. 87–91; Kiely, 1995, p. 43).
For example, in terms of Parsons’ pattern variables, developed countries
can be shown to be particularistic in the behaviour of their social classes and
private interests. Developed countries are also highly ascriptive, especially at
the higher levels of business management and among the poor. Recruitment
may be achievement based, but reward is often based on age and family obli-
gations (e.g. in Japan). Roles are frequently ‘diffuse’ rather than functionally
specific within such power structures as the military–industrial complex of
the United States (Frank, 1972c).
Conversely, underdeveloped countries frequently demonstrate universal-
ism in their educational systems and mass media, in labour unions and in
liberation movements. The economic and political leadership thrown up by
military coups and emerging bourgeoisies throughout the Third World
cannot be described as normatively ascriptive (Frank, 1972c, p. 334).
Role assignment by achievement is also widely found among the poorer
classes of poor societies. In the distribution of rewards achievement accounts
for more than ascription in underdeveloped countries. Roles may be found to
be functionally diffuse in underdeveloped countries, especially among the
poorest and richest strata, though the middle class military officers, police
officers, bureaucrats, junior executives and administrators are functionally
specific in their roles. In Frank’s view, however, these people ‘serve specific
functions of making the whole exploitative system function in the diffuse but
particular interests of those who have achieved control’ (1972c, p. 335).
Neither ‘tradition’ nor ‘modernity’ can be seen as packages of attributes.
Modernization and Political Development 63