Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

THE MEANINGS OF METHODOLOGY

FIGURE 1 Ontological Assumptions

Realist Nominalist

nominalist says subjective-cultural factors greatly
shape all of our experiences with the physical and
social world, and we can never totally remove such
factors. An extreme nominalist says our basic un-
derstanding of every physical-social experience is
depends so heavily on interpretative-cultural fac-
tors that the experiences make no sense without
these factors and any form of objective knowledge
is impossible.
Epistemologyis the issue of how we know the
world around us or what makes a claim about it true.
How we can learn about or know the world is rooted
in our ontological assumptions. Epistemology in-
cludes what we need to do to produce knowledge
and what scientific knowledge looks like once we
have produced it.
If we adopt a realist position, we can produce
knowledge and learn about reality by making care-
ful observations of it. A realist says there is an em-
pirical world “out there” that exists apart from our
inner thoughts and perceptions of it. As we gather
empirical evidence we find that some of our ideas
about reality can be verified or found consistent
with the evidence, while other ideas are false be-
cause they lack supporting empirical evidence. As
we investigate empirical reality, we can distinguish
truth from myth or illusion and produce objective
knowledge. After we pull together and organize the
ideas that have been verified, we will discover broad
principles or laws to explain what reality contains
and how it works. We produce new knowledge de-
ductively by testing preexisting ideas and conjec-
tures about reality against empirical data. We can
also work inductively to gather together and orga-
nize empirical evidence into higher order general-
izations. Working inductively and deductively, over
time we can distinguish true from false ideas about
broad areas of reality.
If we adopt a nominalist position, making ob-
servations will not lead to knowledge about reality

because interpretations and subjective views greatly

influence all observations. The same holds true for

people we might observe—their interpretations and

subjective views shape all they say and do. What we

and other people experience as reality is constructed

from the outcome of a constant process of actions

and interpretations that take place in particular lo-

cations and times. It is impossible to separate an ob-

jective “out there” reality from interpretations or

effects of the time/place in which it occurs. The best

we can do is to recognize our own viewpoints and

interpretations. We might try to discover other

people’s inner, subjective views and interpretations

as they carry out their daily lives. General laws of

social life, laws that hold across all people and

places, are not possible to create. The best knowl-

edge about the world that we can produce is to offer

carefully considered interpretations of specific

people in specific settings. We can offer interpreta-

tions of what we think other people are doing and

what we believe to be their reasons in specific set-

tings. To produce social science knowledge, we

must inductively observe, interpret, and reflect on

what other people are saying and doing in specific

social contexts while we simultaneously reflect on

our own experiences and interpretations.

THE THREE APPROACHES

Science is a human creation. It is not something

handed down like a sacred text written in stone.

Until the early 1800s, only philosophers and reli-

gious scholars engaging in armchair speculation

wrote about human behavior. Early social thinkers

argued that we could study the social world using

principles from science. These thinkers held that

rigorous, systematic observation of the social world

combined with careful, logical thinking could pro-

vide a new, valuable form of knowledge.

Slowly the idea that we could examine the so-

cial world by using scientific principles gained

Epistemology An area of philosophy concerned

with the creation of knowledge; focuses on how we

know what we know or what are the most valid ways

to reach truth.