THE MEANINGS OF METHODOLOGYdemystify them and pull back the veil of surface ap-
pearances. Careful observation is not enough. It does
not tell what to observe, and observing an illusion
does not dispel it. A researcher must use theory to
dig beneath surface relations, to observe periods of
crisis and intense conflict, to probe interconnections,
to look at the past, and to consider future possibilities.
Uncovering the deeper level of reality is difficult but
is essential because surface reality is full of ideol-
ogy, myth, distortion, and false appearances. “Com-
mon sense tends to naturalize social phenomena and
to assume that what is, must be. A social science
which builds uncritically on common sense...
reproduces these errors” (Sayer, 1992:43).
6.What constitutes an explanation or theory
of social reality?
Beyond deduction and induction, CSS uses ab-
duction to create explanatory critiques. American
philosopher Charles S. Peirce (1839–1914) devel-
oped abductionby extending the other forms of
reasoning. Instead of beginning with many obser-
vations or with a theoretical premise, abduction
“tries on” a potential rule and asks what might fol-
low from this rule. Both ideas and observations are
placed into alternative frames and then examined,
and the “what-if” question is asked. A researcher
using abduction applies and evaluates the efficacy
of multiple frameworks sequentially and creatively
recontexualizes or redescribes both data and ideas
in the process.
Abduction rarely produces a single, definitive
truth; instead, it eliminates some alternatives as it
advances a deeper understanding. In certain ways,
it is an aspect of all human perception. Abduction
is similar to how an insightful, creative detective
might solve a crime—by taking the data (clues) and
putting them into alternative possible scenarios
(what might have caused the crime). Considering
alternative scenarios gives the same observations
new meanings. Thus, abduction means making re-
peated reevaluations of ideas and data based on ap-
plying alternative rules or schemes and learning
from each.
Explanatory critiquebegins with the premise
that when we study social life, we study both the
thing “itself” and how people think about or under-
stand the “thing” we are studying. Actual conditions
and people’s beliefs about conditions are both rele-
vant, and the two may not match. An explanatory
critique has practical, moral, and political implica-
tions because it can differ from the prevailing be-
liefs. The explanation simultaneously explains
conditions (or tells why events occur) and critiques
conditions (or points out discrepancies, reveals
myths, or identifies contradictions).
When we render social conditions in an ex-
planatory critique, we often enlighten and help to
emancipate people. As the explanation reveals as-
pects of reality beyond the surface level, people may
awaken to the underlying structures of society. The
explanatory critique reveals deep causal mechanisms
and once exposed, people can learn how to influence
the mechanisms to change larger social structures. In
this way, explanatory critiques show a pathway for
taking action and achieving social change.7.How does one determine whether an expla-
nation is true or false?
PSS deduces hypotheses, tests hypotheses with
replicated observations, and then combines results
to confirm or refute causal laws. ISS asks whether
the meaning system and rules of behavior make
sense to those being studied. CSS tests theory by
accurately describing conditions generated by un-
derlying structures and then by applying that knowl-
edge to change social relations. A CSS theory
teaches people about their own experiences, helps
them understand their historical role, and can be
used to improve conditions.
CSS theory informs practical action; at the same
time CSS theory is modified on the basis of using
it. A CSS theory grows and interacts with the world
it seeks to explain. Because CSS tries to explain and
change the world by penetrating hidden structures,Abduction An approach to theorizing in which sev-
eral alternative frameworks are applied to data and the-
ory, which are redescribed in each and evaluated.
Explanatory critique A type of explanation used in
critical social science in which the explanation simulta-
neously explains conditions (or tells why) events occur
and critiques conditions (or points out discrepancies,
reveals myths, or identifies contradictions).