STRATEGIES OF RESEARCH DESIGNfactor in a quantitative study. As Porter (1995:7, 74)
has argued,
Ideally, expertise should be mechanized and objec-
tified... grounded in specific techniques.... This
ideal of objectivity is a political as well as scientific
one. Objectivity means rule of law, not of men. It
implies the subordination of personal interests and
prejudices to public standards.The issue of integrity in quantitative research
mirrors the natural science approach. It relies on
using an explicit and objective technology, such as
making statements in precise neutral terms, using
well-documented standard techniques, and making
replicable, objective numerical measures.
Quantitative social research shares the hallmarks
of natural science validation: explicit, standard pro-
cedures; precise numerical measurement; and repli-
cation. By contrast, validation in qualitative research
relies more on a dependable, credible researcher and
her or his personal integrity, self-discipline, and trust-
worthiness.^5 Four other forms of validation in quali-
tative research somewhat parallel the objective
procedures found in quantitative studies.^6
The first form indicates that the researcher has
carefully evaluated various forms of evidence and
checked them for consistency. For example, a field
researcher listens to and records a student who
says, “Professor Smith threw an eraser at Professor
Jones.” The researcher must consider the evidence
carefully. This includes considering what other
people say about the event. The field researcher also
looks for confirming evidence and checks for inter-
nal consistency. The researcher asks whether the
student has firsthand knowledge of the event, that is,
directly witnessed it, and asks whether the student’s
feelings or self-interest might lead him or her to lie
(e.g., the student dislikes Professor Smith).FIGURE 2 Graphic Representation of Linear and Nonlinear Paths
Reconstructed Logic, Linear PathLogic in Practice, Nonlinear Path