Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT

ideas. The new ideas provide direction and suggest

new ways to measure. In turn, the new ways to

measure shape how we will collect additional data.

In short, we bridge ideas with data in an ongoing,

interactive process.

To summarize, we think about and make deci-

sions regarding measurement in quantitative studies

before we gather data. The data are in a standard-

ized, uniform format: numbers. In contrast, in a

qualitative study, most of our thinking and mea-

surement decisions occur in the midst of gathering

data, and the data are in a diffuse forms.

THE MEASUREMENT PROCESS
When we measure, we connect an invisible concept,
idea, or construct in our minds with a technique,
process, or procedure with which we observe the
idea in the empirical world.^2 In quantitative studies,
we tend to start with abstract ideas and end with em-
pirical data. In qualitative studies, we mix data and
ideas while gathering data. However, in a specific
study, things are messy and tend to be more inter-
active than this general statement suggests.
We use two major processes in measurement:
conceptualization and operationalization. Concep-
tualizationrefers to taking an abstract construct and
refining it by giving it a conceptual or theoretical
definition. A conceptual definitionis a statement
of the idea in your head in specific words or theo-
retical terms that are linked to other ideas or con-
structs. There is no magical way to turn a construct
into a precise conceptual definition; doing so in-
volves thinking carefully, observing directly, con-
sulting with others, reading what others have said,
and trying possible definitions.
A good definition has one clear, explicit, and
specific meaning. There is no ambiguity or vague-
ness. Sometimes conceptualization is highly cre-
ative and produces new insights. Some scholarly
articles have been devoted to conceptualizing key
concepts. Melbin (1978) conceptualized nightas a
frontier, Gibbs (1989) analyzed the meaning of the
concept of terrorism,and Ball and Curry (1995) dis-
cussed what street gangmeans. The key point is
this: We need clear, unambiguous definitions of
concepts to develop sound explanations.

A single construct can have several definitions,

and people may disagree over definitions. Conceptual

definitions are linked to theoretical frameworks. For

example, a conflict theorist may define social class

as the power and property that a group of people in

society has or lacks. A structural functionalist de-

fines social classin terms of individuals who share

a social status, lifestyle, or subjective identification.

Although people disagree over definitions, we as

researchers should always state explicitly which

definition we are using.

Some constructs (e.g., alienation) are highly

abstract and complex. They contain lower level con-

cepts within them (e.g., powerlessness), which can

be made even more specific (e.g., a feeling of little

power concerning where one can live). Other con-

structs are concrete and simple (e.g., age). We need

to be aware of how complex and abstract a construct

is. For example, it is easier to define a concrete con-

struct such as age(e.g., number of years that have

passed since birth) than a complex, abstract concept

such as morale.

Before we can measure, we must distinguish

exactly what we are interested in from other nearby

things. This is common sense. How can we measure

something unless we know what we are looking for?

For example, a biologist cannot observe a cancer

cell unless he or she first knows what a cancer cell

is, has a microscope, and can distinguish the cell

from noncell “stuff” under the microscope. The pro-

cess of measurement involves more than simply

having a measurement instrument (e.g., a micro-

scope). We need three things in the measurement

process: a construct, a measure, and the ability to

recognize what we are looking for.^3

For example, let us say that I want to measure

teacher morale. I must first define teacher morale.

What does the construct of moralemean? As a vari-

able construct, morale takes on different values:

high versus low or good versus bad. Next I must

Conceptual definition A careful, systematic definition

of a construct that is explicitly written down.

Conceptualization The process of developing clear,

rigorous, systematic conceptual definitions for abstract

ideas/concepts.