Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

EXPANSION BOX 2

Sources of Errors in Survey Research

Erroris the difference between obtained values and

“true values.” It occurs when survey data (obtained

values) do not accurately reflect the actual behaviors,

beliefs, and understandings of respondents in a pop-

ulation that a survey researcher seeks to understand

(true values).

1. Errors in selecting the respondent
   a. Sampling errors (e.g., using a nonprobability sam-
   pling method)
   b. Coverage errors (e.g., a poor sampling frame
   omits certain groups of people)
   c. Nonresponse errors at the level of a sampled unit
   (e.g., a respondent refuses to answer)


2. Errors in responding to survey questions
   a. Nonresponse errors specific to a survey item (e.g.,
   certain questions are skipped or ignored)
   b. Measurement errors caused by respondent (e.g.,
   respondent does not listen carefully)
   c. Measurement errors caused by interviewers (e.g.,
   interviewer is sloppy in reading questions or
   recording answers)


3. Survey administration errors
   a. Postsurvey errors (e.g., mistakes in cleaning data
   or transferring data into an electronic form)
   b. Mode effects (e.g., differences due to survey
   method: by mail, in person, over the Internet)
   c. Comparability errors (e.g., different survey organ-
   izations, nations, or time periods yield different
   data for the same respondents on the same
   issues).
   See:Weisberg (2005:10–28) and Willis (2005:13–17).

SURVEY RESEARCH

This is the stage at which you would draw the
sample of respondents. After the planning phase,
you are ready to collect data. You must locate sam-
pled respondents in person, by telephone, by mail,
or over the Internet. You provide respondents the
instructions on completing the questionnaire or
interview. The questions usually follow a simple
stimulus/response or question/answer pattern. You
must accurately record the answers or responses
immediately after they are given. After all respon-
dents have completed the questionnaire and you
thank them for participating, you organize the
quantitative data and prepare them for statistical
analysis.
Conducting survey research requires good
organization. A large survey can be complex and
expensive. It involves coordinating other people,
moving through multiple steps, and accurate record
keeping.^12 You must keep track of each respondent’s
answer to every question on each questionnaire. To
help with this task, you should assign each sampled
respondent an identification number and attach the
number to the questionnaire.
After collecting all of the data, you will want to
review responses on individual questionnaires, store
original questionnaires, and transfer information
from questionnaires to a computer-readable format
for statistical analysis. Meticulous bookkeeping and
labeling are essential. If you are sloppy, you can lose
the data or end up with worthless, inaccurate data.
There are many ways to make mistakes or
errors in survey research (see Expansion Box 2,
Sources of Errors in Survey Research). Errors can
occur in sampling and respondent selection, in cre-
ating questionnaires or interviewing, and in han-
dling or processing the data. Next we look at
possible errors to avoid when you write questions
for a survey research questionnaire.

CONSTRUCTION OF
THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Principles of Good Question Writing

Dozens of books have been published on writing sur-
vey questionnaires, so only the basics are reviewed
here. Writing good survey questions involves a

mixture of art and science. It is best to see the entire

questionnaire as an integrated whole with the ques-

tions flowing smoothly from one to another after a

few introductory remarks and instructions for ease

of entry and clarity.

Two key principles guide writing good survey

questions: Avoid possible confusion and keep the

respondent’s perspective in mind. Avoiding confu-

sion is easier said than done. You want the survey

questions to provide a valid and reliable measure.