WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH?
A key belief in participatory action research is that
knowledge grows out of directly experiencing social-
political activism. As the research participants engage
in direct action, they become more informed and em-
powered. They learn and are more likely to succeed.
In a participatory action study, research partic-
ipants take an active role in formulating, designing,
and carrying out the research. They cogenerate find-
ings with professional researchers in a collaborative
process. Research participants are involved in
problem definition and study implementation.
Because most participants are unfamiliar with
professional social research, the trained researcher
acts as a consultant or collaborator who assists and
provides expertise in study design, data gathering,
and data analysis/interpretation.
An action researcher balances professional
standards with the practical limits of adapting to
local conditions and specific participant concerns.
Involvement and control by local participants means
joint ownership of the findings. The researcher who
wants to publish study results in a professional out-
let might find that the participants feel the researcher
is only trying to advance his or her career. This
makes getting the permission and cooperation of
participants critical before releasing findings in a
professional setting or outlet.^10
Organizations or people with value/advocacy
views who are opposed to the interests of study par-
ticipants may challenge visible and successful action-
research. For this reason, an action researcher needs
to have an in-depth knowledge of proper research
procedures and very carefully document study
methods (see Example Box 2, Action Research).
- Social impact assessmentresearch esti-
mates the likely social consequences in advance of
a planned change.^11 Often social impact assessment
(SIA) research is part of a larger environmental
impact statement required by government agencies.
In the United States, the 1969 National Environ-
mental Policy Act (NEPA) requires an Environ-
mental Impact Statement (EIS) before a federal
government agency may take “actions significantly
affecting the quality of the human environment”
(NEPA, section 102). Preparing SIA for an EIS
requires social science research, and it assesses both
positive and negative impacts.
An EIS is required for locating and building
schools, hospitals, prisons, housing developments,
shopping centers, factories, landfills, highways, air-
ports, reservoirs, parks, recreation areas, and power
plants. If SIA is part of the EIS, it evaluates the con-
sequences of such action including the availability
and quality of housing, population characteristics
(such as age structure, racial-ethnic diversity,
income and education levels), and the distribution
of power-authority. It may examine attitudes or
perceptions, family bonds, and friendship networks.
The SIA part of the EIS can consider impacts on
community resources such as health, police, fire,
and sanitation services, employment, school and
recreational opportunities, and the vitality of non-
profit organizations. The SIA also considers
impacts on the survival or continuity of distinct
communities of people who have established local
historical and cultural roots.^12
Researchers conducting social impact assess-
ments often work in an interdisciplinary research
team to measure areas of impact (see Example
Box 3, Social Impact Research). Social impact
researchers have a professional organization, the
International Association for Impact Assessment,
with a scholarly journal,Impact Assessment and
Project Appraisal.
After decades of development, the tools and
effectiveness of social impact assessment research
are well established; however, this type of applied
research is seriously underutilized. This is due to
several factors. First, most EISs do not require a
SIA. Legislators, policy officials, or decision mak-
ers rarely ask for a SIA before they approve a major
project. Except for a very few large-scale programs,
most decision makers choose to change zoning
regulations, develop a new business park, create a
housing development, alter transportation routes,
and so forth without systematically considering the
social impact. These issues are decided based on
Social impact assessment Applied research that
documents the likely consequences for various areas of
social life if a major new change is introduced into a
community.
